Specification points

OCR A-level Chemistry A H432

629 points in 8 topics, with OCR's codes and titles.

Codes and titles are read by a script from OCR's published specification and have not been checked by a person. What each point covers is in the specification itself: OCR’s specification.

1 Development of practical skills in chemistry

1.1 Practical skills assessed in a written examination
1.1.1 Planning
1.1.1(a) Designing experiments to solve practical problems
1.1.1(b) Identifying variables to control
1.1.1(c) Judging whether a method suits the aims
1.1.2 Implementing
1.1.2(a) Using practical apparatus and techniques correctly
1.1.2(b) Units for measurements
1.1.2(c) Presenting observations and data
1.1.3 Analysis
1.1.3(a) Processing and interpreting experimental results
1.1.3(b) Maths skills for analysing quantitative data
1.1.3(c) Significant figures
1.1.3(d) Plotting and interpreting graphs of results
1.1.3(d)(i) Choosing and labelling graph axes
1.1.3(d)(ii) Gradients and intercepts from graphs
1.1.4 Evaluation
1.1.4(a) Evaluating results and drawing conclusions
1.1.4(b) Spotting anomalies in measurements
1.1.4(c) Limitations of experimental procedures
1.1.4(d) Precision, accuracy, errors and uncertainties
1.1.4(e) Improving experimental procedures and apparatus
1.2 Practical skills assessed in the practical endorsement
1.2.1 Practical skills
1.2.1(a) Investigative approaches in practical work
1.2.1(b) Safe, correct use of practical equipment
1.2.1(c) Following written instructions
1.2.1(d) Making and recording observations and measurements
1.2.1(e) Keeping records of practical activities
1.2.1(f) Presenting information and data scientifically
1.2.1(g) Software and tools for data and research
1.2.1(h) Research skills using online and printed sources
1.2.1(i) Citing sources of information
1.2.1(j) Range of practical instruments and techniques
1.2.2 Use of apparatus and techniques
1.2.2(a) Apparatus for measuring mass, time, volume and temperature
1.2.2(b) Heating with water baths, heaters or sand baths
1.2.2(c) Measuring pH
1.2.2(d) Laboratory techniques: titration, reflux, tests and filtration
1.2.2(d)(i) Titration with burette and pipette
1.2.2(d)(ii) Reflux and distillation apparatus
1.2.2(d)(iii) Qualitative tests for ions and functional groups
1.2.2(d)(iv) Filtration techniques
1.2.2(e) Making a standard solution
1.2.2(f) Acid–base indicators in titrations
1.2.2(g) Purifying solid and liquid products
1.2.2(g)(i) Recrystallising a solid product
1.2.2(g)(ii) Purifying a liquid with a separating funnel
1.2.2(h) Melting point apparatus
1.2.2(i) Thin layer or paper chromatography
1.2.2(j) Electrochemical cells and measuring voltages
1.2.2(k) Safe handling of hazardous substances
1.2.2(l) Measuring rates of reaction
1.2.2(l)(i) Initial rate methods such as clock reactions
1.2.2(l)(ii) Continuous monitoring of reaction rate

2 Foundations in chemistry

2.1 Atoms and reactions
2.1.1 Atomic structure and isotopes
2.1.1(a) Isotopes
2.1.1(b) Protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions
2.1.1(c) Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass
2.1.1(d) Mass spectrometry
2.1.1(d)(i) Isotopic masses and abundances by mass spectrometry
2.1.1(d)(ii) Relative atomic mass from isotope abundances
2.1.1(e) Relative molecular and formula mass
2.1.2 Compounds, formulae and equations
2.1.2(a) Formulae of ionic compounds
2.1.2(a)(i) Predicting ionic charge from the periodic table
2.1.2(a)(ii) Names and formulae of common ions
2.1.2(b) Balanced and ionic equations with state symbols
2.1.3 Amount of substance
2.1.3(a) Moles, the Avogadro constant, molar mass and gas volume
2.1.3(a)(i) Amount of substance
2.1.3(a)(ii) The mole
2.1.3(a)(iii) The Avogadro constant
2.1.3(a)(iv) Molar mass
2.1.3(a)(v) Molar gas volume
2.1.3(b) Empirical and molecular formulae
2.1.3(b)(i) Empirical formula
2.1.3(b)(ii) Molecular formula
2.1.3(c) Calculating empirical and molecular formulae
2.1.3(d) Hydrated salts and water of crystallisation
2.1.3(e) Mole calculations: mass, gas and solution
2.1.3(e)(i) Moles and mass
2.1.3(e)(ii) Moles and gas volume
2.1.3(e)(iii) Moles, solution volume and concentration
2.1.3(f) The ideal gas equation
2.1.3(g) Stoichiometry in calculations
2.1.3(h) Percentage yield and atom economy
2.1.3(h)(i) Percentage yield
2.1.3(h)(ii) Atom economy
2.1.3(i) Measuring mass and volumes in experiments
2.1.3(j) Atom economy and sustainability
2.1.4 Acids
2.1.4(a) Common acids and alkalis and their ions
2.1.4(b) Strong and weak acids
2.1.4(c) Neutralisation
2.1.4(c)(i) H⁺ and OH⁻ to form H₂O
2.1.4(c)(ii) Acids reacting with bases to form salts
2.1.4(d) Standard solutions and acid–base titrations
2.1.4(e) Titration calculations
2.1.5 Redox
2.1.5(a) Assigning oxidation numbers
2.1.5(b) Formulae from oxidation numbers
2.1.5(c) Roman numerals for oxidation numbers
2.1.5(d) Oxidation and reduction
2.1.5(d)(i) Redox as electron transfer
2.1.5(d)(ii) Redox as oxidation number change
2.1.5(e) Metals with acids as redox reactions
2.1.5(f) Interpreting redox equations
2.2 Electrons, bonding and structure
2.2.1 Electron structure
2.2.1(a) Electrons in the first four shells
2.2.1(b) Atomic orbitals and sub-shells
2.2.1(b)(i) Orbitals as regions holding two electrons
2.2.1(b)(ii) Shapes of s- and p-orbitals
2.2.1(b)(iii) Orbitals and electrons in s-, p- and d-sub-shells
2.2.1(c) Order of filling orbitals
2.2.1(c)(i) Filling order up to the 4p orbitals
2.2.1(c)(ii) Single occupation before pairing
2.2.1(d) Electron configurations of atoms and ions
2.2.1(d)(i) Electron configurations of atoms up to Z = 36
2.2.1(d)(ii) Electron configurations of s- and p-block ions
2.2.2 Bonding and structure
2.2.2(a) Ionic bonding and dot-and-cross diagrams
2.2.2(b) Giant ionic lattices
2.2.2(c) Physical properties of ionic compounds
2.2.2(d) The covalent bond
2.2.2(e) Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent bonding
2.2.2(e)(i) Single covalent bonds
2.2.2(e)(ii) Multiple covalent bonds
2.2.2(e)(iii) Dative covalent (coordinate) bonds
2.2.2(f) Average bond enthalpy and bond strength
2.2.2(g) Electron pair repulsion and molecular shapes
2.2.2(h) Named shapes of molecules and ions
2.2.2(i) Electronegativity and Pauling values
2.2.2(j) Polar bonds and polar molecules
2.2.2(j)(i) Polar bonds and permanent dipoles
2.2.2(j)(ii) Polar molecules and overall dipoles
2.2.2(k) Permanent and induced dipole–dipole forces
2.2.2(l) Hydrogen bonding
2.2.2(m) Anomalous properties of water
2.2.2(m)(i) Density of ice and water
2.2.2(m)(ii) High melting and boiling points of water
2.2.2(n) Simple molecular lattices
2.2.2(o) Properties of simple molecular substances

3 Periodic table and energy

3.1 The periodic table
3.1.1 Periodicity
3.1.1(a) How the periodic table is arranged
3.1.1(a)(i) Order by atomic number
3.1.1(a)(ii) Periods and periodicity
3.1.1(a)(iii) Groups with similar properties
3.1.1(b) Electron configurations and blocks
3.1.1(b)(i) Electron configuration trends across Periods 2 and 3
3.1.1(b)(ii) s-, p- and d-block elements
3.1.1(c) Ionisation energies
3.1.1(c)(i) Trends in first ionisation energy
3.1.1(c)(ii) Shells and groups from successive ionisation energies
3.1.1(d) Metallic bonding and lattices
3.1.1(d)(i) Metallic bonding
3.1.1(d)(ii) Giant metallic lattices
3.1.1(e) Giant covalent lattices of carbon and silicon
3.1.1(f) Properties of giant metallic and covalent lattices
3.1.1(g) Melting point trends across Periods 2 and 3
3.1.2 Group 2
3.1.2(a) Group 2 electron configuration and 2+ ions
3.1.2(b) Reactivity of Group 2 elements
3.1.2(b)(i) Group 2 elements with oxygen
3.1.2(b)(ii) Group 2 elements with water
3.1.2(b)(iii) Group 2 elements with dilute acids
3.1.2(c) Group 2 reactivity and ionisation energies
3.1.2(d) Group 2 oxides in water and alkalinity
3.1.2(e) Uses of Group 2 compounds as bases
3.1.2(e)(i) Calcium hydroxide for acid soils
3.1.2(e)(ii) Antacids for indigestion
3.1.3 The halogens
3.1.3(a) Halogen molecules and boiling points
3.1.3(b) Halogen electron configuration and 1– ions
3.1.3(c) Halogen reactivity and displacement
3.1.3(d) Explaining the trend in halogen reactivity
3.1.3(e) Disproportionation reactions of chlorine
3.1.3(e)(i) Chlorine and water in water treatment
3.1.3(e)(ii) Chlorine with sodium hydroxide to make bleach
3.1.3(e)(iii) Similar disproportionation reactions
3.1.3(f) Chlorine in water treatment: benefits and risks
3.1.3(g) Silver nitrate test for halide ions
3.1.4 Qualitative analysis
3.1.4(a) Test-tube tests for ions
3.1.4(a)(i) Tests for carbonate, sulfate and halide anions
3.1.4(a)(ii) Test for ammonium ions
3.2 Physical chemistry
3.2.1 Enthalpy changes
3.2.1(a) Exothermic and endothermic reactions
3.2.1(b) Enthalpy profile diagrams
3.2.1(c) Activation energy
3.2.1(d) Standard enthalpy change terms
3.2.1(d)(i) Standard conditions and states
3.2.1(d)(ii) Enthalpy change of reaction
3.2.1(d)(iii) Enthalpy change of formation
3.2.1(d)(iv) Enthalpy change of combustion
3.2.1(d)(v) Enthalpy change of neutralisation
3.2.1(e) Measuring enthalpy changes with q = mc∆T
3.2.1(f) Bond enthalpies
3.2.1(f)(i) Average bond enthalpy
3.2.1(f)(ii) Bond breaking and making in energy changes
3.2.1(f)(iii) Enthalpy calculations from bond enthalpies
3.2.1(g) Hess' law and enthalpy cycles
3.2.1(g)(i) Reaction enthalpy from combustion data
3.2.1(g)(ii) Reaction enthalpy from formation data
3.2.1(g)(iii) Unfamiliar enthalpy cycles
3.2.1(h) Measuring enthalpy changes directly and indirectly
3.2.2 Reaction rates
3.2.2(a) Concentration, pressure and collision frequency
3.2.2(b) Rates from gradients of graphs
3.2.2(c) The role of a catalyst
3.2.2(c)(i) Catalysts are not used up
3.2.2(c)(ii) Catalysts provide a lower activation energy route
3.2.2(d) Types of catalyst and their importance
3.2.2(d)(i) Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
3.2.2(d)(ii) Economic and sustainability benefits of catalysts
3.2.2(e) Measuring reaction rates
3.2.2(f) The Boltzmann distribution
3.2.2(g) Boltzmann distributions, temperature and catalysts
3.2.2(g)(i) Effect of temperature on the distribution
3.2.2(g)(ii) Effect of a catalyst on the distribution
3.2.3 Chemical equilibrium
3.2.3(a) Dynamic equilibrium
3.2.3(b) Le Chatelier's principle
3.2.3(c) Catalysts and equilibrium position
3.2.3(d) Investigating equilibrium position changes
3.2.3(e) Equilibrium and rate compromise in industry
3.2.3(f) The equilibrium constant Kc
3.2.3(g) Equilibrium position from the size of Kc

4 Core organic chemistry

4.1 Basic concepts and hydrocarbons
4.1.1 Basic concepts of organic chemistry
4.1.1(a) IUPAC naming of organic compounds
4.1.1(b) Types of formula
4.1.1(b)(i) General formula
4.1.1(b)(ii) Structural formula
4.1.1(b)(iii) Displayed formula
4.1.1(b)(iv) Skeletal formula
4.1.1(c) Terms for classifying organic compounds
4.1.1(c)(i) Homologous series
4.1.1(c)(ii) Functional group
4.1.1(c)(iii) Alkyl group
4.1.1(c)(iv) Aliphatic compounds
4.1.1(c)(v) Alicyclic compounds
4.1.1(c)(vi) Aromatic compounds
4.1.1(c)(vii) Saturated and unsaturated compounds
4.1.1(d) Predicting formulae from a general formula
4.1.1(e) Structural isomers
4.1.1(f) Homolytic and heterolytic fission
4.1.1(f)(i) Homolytic fission
4.1.1(f)(ii) Heterolytic fission
4.1.1(g) Radicals
4.1.1(h) Curly arrows
4.1.1(i) Drawing reaction mechanisms
4.1.2 Alkanes
4.1.2(a) Alkanes and sigma bonds
4.1.2(b) Tetrahedral shape of alkanes
4.1.2(c) Boiling points of alkanes
4.1.2(d) Low reactivity of alkanes
4.1.2(e) Complete and incomplete combustion of alkanes
4.1.2(f) Radical substitution of alkanes
4.1.2(g) Limitations of radical substitution
4.1.3 Alkenes
4.1.3(a) Alkenes and pi bonds
4.1.3(b) Trigonal planar shape of alkenes
4.1.3(c) Stereoisomerism and E/Z naming
4.1.3(c)(i) Stereoisomers and E/Z isomerism
4.1.3(c)(ii) Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules
4.1.3(d) Finding E/Z and cis–trans isomers
4.1.3(e) Reactivity of alkenes
4.1.3(f) Addition reactions of alkenes
4.1.3(f)(i) Hydrogenation of alkenes
4.1.3(f)(ii) Halogen addition and the bromine test
4.1.3(f)(iii) Addition of hydrogen halides
4.1.3(f)(iv) Hydration with steam to alcohols
4.1.3(g) Electrophiles
4.1.3(h) Electrophilic addition mechanism
4.1.3(i) Markownikoff's rule
4.1.3(j) Addition polymerisation
4.1.3(j)(i) Repeat unit from a monomer
4.1.3(j)(ii) Monomer from a polymer section
4.1.3(k) Processing waste polymers sustainably
4.1.3(k)(i) Burning waste polymers for energy
4.1.3(k)(ii) Waste polymers as feedstock
4.1.3(k)(iii) Removing toxic products from polymer disposal
4.1.3(l) Biodegradable and photodegradable polymers
4.2 Alcohols, haloalkanes and analysis
4.2.1 Alcohols
4.2.1(a) Properties and classification of alcohols
4.2.1(a)(i) Polarity, solubility and volatility of alcohols
4.2.1(a)(ii) Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
4.2.1(b) Combustion of alcohols
4.2.1(c) Oxidation of alcohols
4.2.1(c)(i) Oxidising primary alcohols to aldehydes and acids
4.2.1(c)(ii) Oxidising secondary alcohols to ketones
4.2.1(c)(iii) Tertiary alcohols resisting oxidation
4.2.1(d) Dehydration of alcohols to alkenes
4.2.1(e) Alcohols to haloalkanes by substitution
4.2.2 Haloalkanes
4.2.2(a) Hydrolysis of haloalkanes
4.2.2(a)(i) Hydrolysis by aqueous alkali
4.2.2(a)(ii) Comparing hydrolysis rates with silver nitrate
4.2.2(b) Nucleophiles
4.2.2(c) Nucleophilic substitution mechanism
4.2.2(d) Hydrolysis rates and carbon–halogen bond enthalpies
4.2.2(e) CFCs, radicals and ozone depletion
4.2.2(e)(i) Forming halogen radicals
4.2.2(e)(ii) Radicals catalysing ozone breakdown
4.2.3 Organic synthesis
4.2.3(a) Organic practical techniques
4.2.3(a)(i) Quickfit apparatus for distillation and reflux
4.2.3(a)(ii) Preparing and purifying an organic liquid
4.2.3(b) Molecules with several functional groups
4.2.3(b)(i) Identifying functional groups
4.2.3(b)(ii) Predicting properties and reactions
4.2.3(c) Two-stage synthetic routes
4.2.4 Analytical techniques
4.2.4(a) Infrared radiation and bond vibration
4.2.4(b) Infrared absorption by greenhouse gases
4.2.4(c) Identifying compounds from infrared spectra
4.2.4(c)(i) Alcohols from O–H absorption
4.2.4(c)(ii) Aldehydes and ketones from C=O absorption
4.2.4(c)(iii) Carboxylic acids from C=O and O–H absorption
4.2.4(d) Interpreting infrared spectra with data
4.2.4(e) Infrared in pollution monitoring and breathalysers
4.2.4(f) Molecular ion peak and molecular mass
4.2.4(g) Fragmentation peaks in mass spectra
4.2.4(h) Deducing structures from analytical data
4.2.4(h)(i) Elemental analysis
4.2.4(h)(ii) Mass spectra
4.2.4(h)(iii) IR spectra

5 Physical chemistry and transition elements

5.1 Rates, equilibrium and pH
5.1.1 How fast?
5.1.1(a) Rate terms: order, rate constant, half-life
5.1.1(b) Orders and rate equations from data
5.1.1(b)(i) Deducing orders from data
5.1.1(b)(ii) Writing rate equations from orders
5.1.1(c) Calculating the rate constant and its units
5.1.1(d) Concentration–time graphs
5.1.1(d)(i) Order from concentration–time graph shape
5.1.1(d)(ii) Rates from gradients
5.1.1(e) Constant half-life of first order reactions
5.1.1(f) Rate constant from half-life
5.1.1(g) Rate–concentration graphs
5.1.1(g)(i) Order from rate–concentration graph shape
5.1.1(g)(ii) First order rate constant from gradient
5.1.1(h) Initial rates and continuous monitoring methods
5.1.1(i) Rate equations and multi-step mechanisms
5.1.1(i)(i) Rate equation and the rate-determining step
5.1.1(i)(ii) Mechanism steps from the rate equation
5.1.1(j) Temperature and the rate constant
5.1.1(k) The Arrhenius equation
5.1.1(k)(i) Exponential link between k and temperature
5.1.1(k)(ii) Finding Eₐ and A graphically
5.1.2 How far?
5.1.2(a) Mole fraction and partial pressure
5.1.2(b) Calculating equilibrium quantities
5.1.2(c) Determining equilibrium quantities experimentally
5.1.2(d) Kc and Kp expressions
5.1.2(e) Calculating Kc and Kp
5.1.2(f) Factors affecting equilibrium constants
5.1.2(f)(i) Temperature and equilibrium constants
5.1.2(f)(ii) Constants unchanged by concentration, pressure, catalyst
5.1.2(g) How K controls equilibrium position
5.1.2(h) Applying principles to other equilibrium constants
5.1.3 Acids, bases and buffers
5.1.3(a) Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases
5.1.3(a)(i) Proton donors and acceptors
5.1.3(a)(ii) Conjugate acid–base pairs
5.1.3(a)(iii) Monobasic, dibasic and tribasic acids
5.1.3(b) H⁺ in acid reactions with metals and bases
5.1.3(c) Kₐ and pKₐ
5.1.3(c)(i) Kₐ as a measure of acid dissociation
5.1.3(c)(ii) Converting between Kₐ and pKₐ
5.1.3(d) pH and hydrogen ion concentration
5.1.3(e) Ionic product of water, Kw
5.1.3(f) pH of strong acids and bases
5.1.3(f)(i) pH of strong monobasic acids
5.1.3(f)(ii) pH of strong bases using Kw
5.1.3(g) pH and Kₐ of weak acids
5.1.3(h) Limits of weak acid approximations
5.1.3(i) Buffer solutions
5.1.3(j) Making buffer solutions
5.1.3(j)(i) Buffers from a weak acid and its salt
5.1.3(j)(ii) Buffers from excess weak acid and strong alkali
5.1.3(k) How conjugate pairs control buffer pH
5.1.3(l) Calculating buffer pH
5.1.3(m) Blood pH and the carbonic acid buffer
5.1.3(n) pH titration curves and indicators
5.1.3(n)(i) Shapes of pH titration curves
5.1.3(n)(ii) Choosing indicators by pH range
5.1.3(n)(iii) Indicator colour changes and equilibrium
5.1.3(o) Using a pH meter
5.2 Energy
5.2.1 Lattice enthalpy
5.2.1(a) Lattice enthalpy
5.2.1(b) Born–Haber cycles
5.2.1(b)(i) Constructing Born–Haber cycles
5.2.1(b)(ii) Born–Haber cycle calculations
5.2.1(c) Enthalpy changes of solution and hydration
5.2.1(c)(i) Enthalpy change of solution
5.2.1(c)(ii) Enthalpy change of hydration
5.2.1(d) Enthalpy cycles for dissolving
5.2.1(d)(i) Constructing enthalpy cycles for dissolving
5.2.1(d)(ii) Born–Haber cycle calculations
5.2.1(e) Ionic charge and radius effects on enthalpies
5.2.2 Enthalpy and entropy
5.2.2(a) Entropy as energy dispersal
5.2.2(b) Comparing entropies of systems
5.2.2(b)(i) Entropy of solids, liquids and gases
5.2.2(b)(ii) Entropy change and gaseous molecules
5.2.2(c) Calculating entropy change
5.2.2(d) Feasibility, enthalpy and entropy
5.2.2(e) Free energy change and the Gibbs equation
5.2.2(f) Limitations of free energy predictions
5.2.3 Redox and electrode potentials
5.2.3(a) Oxidising and reducing agents
5.2.3(b) Redox equations from half-equations
5.2.3(c) Predicting electron transfer reactions
5.2.3(d) Redox titration techniques
5.2.3(e) Redox titration calculations
5.2.3(e)(i) Iron(II)/manganate and iodine/thiosulfate titrations
5.2.3(e)(ii) Unfamiliar redox titrations
5.2.3(f) Standard electrode potential and the hydrogen electrode
5.2.3(g) Measuring cell potentials
5.2.3(g)(i) Cells of elements and their ions
5.2.3(g)(ii) Cells of ions in different oxidation states
5.2.3(h) Calculating standard cell potentials
5.2.3(i) Predicting feasibility from cell potentials
5.2.3(j) Modern storage cells
5.2.3(k) Fuel cells
5.3 Transition elements
5.3.1 Transition elements
5.3.1(a) Electron configurations of d-block elements
5.3.1(b) Transition elements
5.3.1(c) Properties of transition elements
5.3.1(c)(i) Variable oxidation states
5.3.1(c)(ii) Coloured ions
5.3.1(c)(iii) Transition metals as catalysts
5.3.1(d) Ligands and coordinate bonding
5.3.1(e) Complex ions and coordination number
5.3.1(e)(i) Octahedral complexes
5.3.1(e)(ii) Planar and tetrahedral complexes
5.3.1(f) Stereoisomerism in complexes
5.3.1(f)(i) Cis–trans isomerism in complexes
5.3.1(f)(ii) Optical isomerism in complexes
5.3.1(g) Cis-platin as an anti-cancer drug
5.3.1(h) Ligand substitution and colour changes
5.3.1(h)(i) Copper complexes from ammonia and chloride
5.3.1(h)(ii) Chromium ammine complex formation
5.3.1(i) Iron in haemoglobin, oxygen and carbon monoxide
5.3.1(j) Metal ions with hydroxide and ammonia
5.3.1(j)(i) Precipitation reactions of metal ions
5.3.1(j)(ii) Complexes with excess hydroxide or ammonia
5.3.1(k) Redox reactions of transition metal ions
5.3.1(k)(i) Iron(II) and iron(III) interconversion
5.3.1(k)(ii) Chromium(III) and dichromate interconversion
5.3.1(k)(iii) Copper(I) reduction and disproportionation
5.3.1(l) Predicting unfamiliar transition metal reactions
5.3.2 Qualitative analysis
5.3.2(a) Test-tube identification of anions and cations
5.3.2(a)(i) Identifying anions
5.3.2(a)(ii) Identifying cations, including transition metal ions

6 Organic chemistry and analysis

6.1 Aromatic compounds, carbonyls and acids
6.1.1 Aromatic compounds
6.1.1(a) Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene
6.1.1(b) Evidence for delocalisation in benzene
6.1.1(c) Naming substituted aromatic compounds
6.1.1(d) Electrophilic substitution of arenes
6.1.1(d)(i) Nitration of arenes
6.1.1(d)(ii) Halogenation with a halogen carrier
6.1.1(d)(iii) Friedel–Crafts alkylation and acylation
6.1.1(e) Mechanism of nitration and halogenation
6.1.1(f) Benzene's resistance to bromination
6.1.1(g) Predicting unfamiliar aromatic substitution reactions
6.1.1(h) Weak acidity of phenols
6.1.1(i) Substitution reactions of phenol
6.1.1(i)(i) Phenol with bromine
6.1.1(i)(ii) Phenol with dilute nitric acid
6.1.1(j) Why phenol substitutes more readily
6.1.1(k) Directing effects of substituent groups
6.1.1(l) Predicting aromatic substitution products
6.1.2 Carbonyl compounds
6.1.2(a) Oxidising aldehydes to carboxylic acids
6.1.2(b) Nucleophilic addition to carbonyls
6.1.2(b)(i) NaBH₄ to form alcohols
6.1.2(b)(ii) Carbonyls with HCN to form hydroxynitriles
6.1.2(c) Nucleophilic addition mechanism
6.1.2(d) Testing carbonyls with 2,4-DNP
6.1.2(d)(i) Detecting a carbonyl group
6.1.2(d)(ii) Identifying carbonyls by derivative melting point
6.1.2(e) Tollens' reagent
6.1.2(e)(i) Detecting an aldehyde group
6.1.2(e)(ii) Telling aldehydes from ketones
6.1.3 Carboxylic acids and esters
6.1.3(a) Solubility of carboxylic acids
6.1.3(b) Carboxylic acids with metals and bases
6.1.3(c) Esterification
6.1.3(c)(i) Esters from carboxylic acids and alcohols
6.1.3(c)(ii) Esters from acid anhydrides
6.1.3(d) Hydrolysis of esters
6.1.3(d)(i) Acid hydrolysis of esters
6.1.3(d)(ii) Alkaline hydrolysis of esters
6.1.3(e) Making acyl chlorides with SOCl₂
6.1.3(f) Acyl chlorides in synthesis
6.2 Nitrogen compounds, polymers and synthesis
6.2.1 Amines
6.2.1(a) Basicity of amines
6.2.1(b) Preparing amines
6.2.1(b)(i) Aliphatic amines from haloalkanes
6.2.1(b)(ii) Aromatic amines from nitroarenes
6.2.2 Amino acids, amides and chirality
6.2.2(a) Amino acids and their reactions
6.2.2(a)(i) Reactions of the carboxylic acid group
6.2.2(a)(ii) Reactions of the amine group
6.2.2(b) Primary and secondary amides
6.2.2(c) Optical isomerism
6.2.2(d) Identifying chiral centres
6.2.3 Polyesters and polyamides
6.2.3(a) Condensation polymerisation
6.2.3(a)(i) Polyesters
6.2.3(a)(ii) Polyamides
6.2.3(b) Hydrolysis of condensation polymers
6.2.3(b)(i) Hydrolysis of polyesters
6.2.3(b)(ii) Hydrolysis of polyamides
6.2.3(c) Predicting polymers and monomers
6.2.3(c)(i) Repeat units from monomers
6.2.3(c)(ii) Monomers from a polymer section
6.2.3(c)(iii) Type of polymerisation
6.2.4 Carbon–carbon bond formation
6.2.4(a) Carbon–carbon bond formation in synthesis
6.2.4(b) Making nitriles
6.2.4(b)(i) Nitriles from haloalkanes and cyanide
6.2.4(b)(ii) Hydroxynitriles from carbonyls and HCN
6.2.4(c) Reactions of nitriles
6.2.4(c)(i) Reducing nitriles to amines
6.2.4(c)(ii) Hydrolysing nitriles to carboxylic acids
6.2.4(d) Friedel–Crafts alkylation and acylation
6.2.5 Organic synthesis
6.2.5(a) Preparing and purifying organic solids
6.2.5(a)(i) Organic preparation techniques
6.2.5(a)(ii) Purifying an organic solid
6.2.5(b) Molecules with several functional groups
6.2.5(b)(i) Identifying functional groups
6.2.5(b)(ii) Predicting properties and reactions
6.2.5(c) Multi-stage synthetic routes
6.3 Analysis
6.3.1 Chromatography and qualitative analysis
6.3.1(a) TLC chromatograms and Rf values
6.3.1(b) Interpreting gas chromatograms
6.3.1(b)(i) Retention times
6.3.1(b)(ii) Proportions of components from chromatograms
6.3.1(c) Test-tube tests for functional groups
6.3.1(c)(i) Testing for alkenes with bromine
6.3.1(c)(ii) Testing for haloalkanes with silver nitrate
6.3.1(c)(iii) Identifying phenols by weak acidity
6.3.1(c)(iv) Testing for carbonyls with 2,4-DNP
6.3.1(c)(v) Testing for aldehydes with Tollens' reagent
6.3.1(c)(vi) Testing alcohols and aldehydes with dichromate
6.3.1(c)(vii) Testing for carboxylic acids with carbonate
6.3.2 Spectroscopy
6.3.2(a) Carbon-13 NMR spectra
6.3.2(a)(i) Number of carbon environments
6.3.2(a)(ii) Types of carbon environment from shifts
6.3.2(a)(iii) Possible structures from carbon-13 NMR
6.3.2(b) Proton NMR spectra
6.3.2(b)(i) Number of proton environments
6.3.2(b)(ii) Types of proton environment from shifts
6.3.2(b)(iii) Relative proton numbers from peak areas
6.3.2(b)(iv) Spin–spin splitting and the n + 1 rule
6.3.2(b)(v) Possible structures from carbon-13 NMR
6.3.2(c) Predicting NMR spectra
6.3.2(d) TMS, deuterated solvents and D₂O exchange
6.3.2(d)(i) TMS as the chemical shift standard
6.3.2(d)(ii) Deuterated solvents in NMR
6.3.2(d)(iii) Identifying O–H and N–H protons with D₂O
6.3.2(e) Deducing structures from combined analytical data
6.3.2(e)(i) Elemental analysis
6.3.2(e)(ii) Mass spectra
6.3.2(e)(iii) IR spectra (see also 4.2.4 d–e)
6.3.2(e)(iv) NMR spectra

5d How Science Works (HSW)

HSW1 Theories and models to explain science
HSW2 Posing questions and presenting scientific arguments
HSW3 Methods, including ICT, to answer scientific questions
HSW4 Experimental work and risk management
HSW5 Analysing data, correlation and causation
HSW6 Evaluating methods, evidence and data
HSW7 How scientific knowledge develops over time
HSW8 Communicating science with correct terminology
HSW9 Applications, benefits and risks of science
HSW10 Ethical issues in science
HSW11 Scientific community and validating knowledge
HSW12 Science in society's decision making

5e Mathematical requirements

M0 Arithmetic and numerical computation
M0.0 Units in calculations
M0.1 Decimal and ordinary form
M0.2 Ratios, fractions and percentages
M0.3 Estimating results
M0.4 Powers, exponentials and logarithms on calculators
M1 Handling data
M1.1 Significant figures
M1.2 Arithmetic means
M1.3 Uncertainties in measurements and combined data
M2 Algebra
M2.1 Mathematical symbols
M2.2 Changing the subject of an equation
M2.3 Substituting values into equations
M2.4 Solving algebraic equations
M2.5 Logarithms for wide-ranging quantities
M3 Graphs
M3.1 Graphical, numerical and algebraic forms
M3.2 Plotting two variables from data
M3.3 Slope and intercept of a linear graph
M3.4 Rate of change from a linear graph
M3.5 Tangents to curves as rates of change
M4 Geometry and trigonometry
M4.1 Angles and shapes in 2-D and 3-D structures
M4.2 Representing 2-D and 3-D forms
M4.3 Symmetry of 2-D and 3-D shapes