Specification points

Edexcel International AS and A level Chemistry XCH11/YCH11

570 points in 6 topics, with Edexcel's codes and titles.

Codes and titles are read by a script from Edexcel's published specification and have not been checked by a person. What each point covers is in the specification itself: Edexcel’s specification.

U1 Structure, Bonding and Introduction to Organic Chemistry

1 Formulae, Equations and Amount of Substance
1.1 Atoms, elements, ions, molecules, compounds and formulae
1.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant
1.3 Balanced full and ionic equations
1.4 Relative masses and related terms
1.4.i Relative atomic mass on the carbon-12 scale
1.4.ii Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass
1.4.iii Molar mass
1.4.iv Parts per million (ppm), including gases in the atmosphere
1.5 Concentration of solutions
1.6 Empirical and molecular formulae from data
1.7 Reacting mass calculations
1.8 Gas volume calculations
1.8.i The concepts of amount of substance
1.8.ii The molar volume of gases
1.8.iii The expression pV = nRT for gases and volatile liquids
1.9 Percentage yield and atom economy
1.10 Determining formulae and equations by experiment
1.11 Core practical 1: molar volume of a gas
1.12 Equations and observations from test-tube reactions
1.12.i Displacement reactions
1.12.ii Typical reactions of acids
1.12.iii Precipitation reactions
2 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
2.1 Structure of the atom
2.2 Relative masses and charges of subatomic particles
2.3 Atomic number and mass number
2.4 Numbers of subatomic particles in atoms and ions
2.5 Isotopes
2.6 Mass spectrometry and mass spectra
2.6.i Isotopic composition from mass spectra
2.6.ii Relative atomic mass from isotopic abundances
2.6.iii Relative molecular mass from mass spectra
2.6.iv Ions with a 2+ charge in mass spectra
2.7 Predicting mass spectra of diatomic molecules
2.8 First, second and third ionisation energies
2.9 Orbitals
2.10 Factors influencing ionisation energy
2.11 Evidence for electronic structure
2.11.i Successive ionisation energies and quantum shells
2.11.ii First ionisation energies and sub-shells
2.12 Shapes of s and p orbitals
2.13 Filling of orbitals in sub-shells
2.13.i Single electrons in orbitals before pairing
2.13.ii Pairing of electrons with opposite spins
2.14 Electronic configurations from hydrogen to krypton
2.15 Electronic configuration and chemical properties
2.16 s, p and d blocks of the Periodic Table
2.17 Ionisation energy data and periodicity
2.18 Trends across Periods 2 and 3
2.18.i Melting and boiling temperatures across Periods 2 and 3
2.18.ii Ionisation energy across Periods 2 and 3
2.18.iii The decrease in first ionisation energy down a group
3 Bonding and Structure
3.1 Evidence for the existence of ions
3.2 Formation of ions
3.3 Dot-and-cross diagrams for ions
3.4 Giant ionic lattices
3.5 Ionic bonding
3.6 Ionic radius, charge and bond strength
3.7 Trends in ionic radii
3.8 Polarisation of ions
3.9 Polarising power and polarisability
3.10 Covalent bonding and the evidence for it
3.10.i The physical properties of giant atomic structures
3.10.ii Electron density maps for simple molecules
3.11 Dot-and-cross diagrams for covalent substances
3.11.i Molecules with single, double and triple bonds
3.11.ii Dative covalent bonds
3.12 Giant carbon lattices: graphite, diamond and graphene
3.13 Electronegativity
3.14 The continuum from ionic to covalent bonding
3.15 Polar bonds and polar molecules
3.16 Electron-pair repulsion theory
3.17 Bond length and bond angle
3.18 Shapes and bond angles of simple molecules
3.19 Predicting shapes of analogous molecules and ions
3.20 Metallic lattices and delocalised electrons
3.21 Metallic bonding
3.22 Properties of metals
4 Introductory Organic Chemistry and Alkanes
4.1 Hazard and risk
4.2 Hazards of organic compounds and risk assessment
4.3 Reducing risks in reactions
4.3.i Working on a smaller scale
4.3.ii Taking precautions specific to the hazard
4.3.iii Using an alternative method that involves less hazardous substances
4.4 Homologous series and functional groups
4.5 IUPAC nomenclature
4.5.i Naming compounds
4.5.ii Structural, displayed and skeletal formulae
4.6 Classifying organic reactions
4.7 Homolytic and heterolytic bond breaking
4.7.i Homolytic, to produce free radicals
4.7.ii Heterolytic, to produce ions
4.8 Free radicals and electrophiles
4.9 Alkanes and cycloalkanes
4.10 Structural isomerism
4.11 Isomers of alkanes and cycloalkanes
4.12 Alkanes as fuels from crude oil
4.13 Pollutants from burning alkane fuels
4.14 Problems caused by combustion pollutants
4.15 Alternative fuels
4.16 Carbon neutrality of fuels
4.17 Reactions of alkanes
4.17.i Oxygen in the air (combustion)
4.17.ii Halogens
4.18 Free radical substitution of alkanes
4.18.i Free radicals
4.18.ii Initiation step
4.18.iii Propagation and termination steps
4.18.iv Limitations of free radical substitution in synthesis
5 Alkenes
5.1 Alkenes and cycloalkenes
5.2 Geometric isomerism
5.3 E–Z naming of geometric isomers
5.4 Reactions of alkenes
5.4.i The addition of hydrogen, using a nickel catalyst, to form an alkane
5.4.ii The addition of halogens to produce a di-substituted halogenoalkane
5.4.iii The addition of hydrogen halides to produce mono-substituted halogenoalkanes
5.4.iv Hydration of alkenes with steam
5.4.v Oxidation of alkenes to diols
5.5 Test for a C=C double bond
5.6 Electrophilic addition mechanisms
5.6.i The electrophilic addition of bromine and hydrogen bromide to ethene
5.6.ii The electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to propene
5.7 Addition polymerisation
5.8 Limiting problems of polymer disposal
5.8.i Biodegradable polymers
5.8.ii Removing toxic gases from polymer incineration

U2 Energetics, Group Chemistry, Halogenoalkanes and Alcohols

6 Energetics
6.1 Enthalpy change and standard conditions
6.2 Exothermic and endothermic sign conventions
6.3 Enthalpy level diagrams
6.4 Standard enthalpy changes
6.4.i Reaction, ∆rH
6.4.ii Formation, ∆fH
6.4.iii Combustion, ∆cH
6.4.iv Neutralisation, ∆neutH
6.4.v Atomisation, ∆atH
6.5 Enthalpy calculations from experimental data
6.5.i Energy transferred in a reaction
6.5.ii Enthalpy change of reaction in kJ mol⁻¹
6.6 Hess's law
6.6.i Constructing enthalpy cycles
6.6.ii Enthalpy changes from data
6.7 Core practical 2: enthalpy change using Hess's law
6.8 Evaluating enthalpy experiments
6.9 Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy
6.10 Calculating mean bond enthalpies
6.11 Bond enthalpy and reactivity
7 Intermolecular Forces
7.1 Types of intermolecular force
7.1.i London forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
7.1.ii Permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions
7.1.iii Hydrogen bonds
7.2 Hydrogen bonding in H2O, NH3 and HF
7.3 Anomalous properties of water
7.3.i High melting and boiling temperatures of water
7.3.ii The density of ice compared to that of water
7.4 Predicting hydrogen bonding
7.5 Intermolecular forces and physical properties
7.5.i The trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length
7.5.ii Chain branching and boiling temperature
7.5.iii Volatility of alcohols compared with alkanes
7.5.iv The trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides HF to HI
7.6 Choice of solvents
7.6.i Water dissolving ionic compounds
7.6.ii Water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding
7.6.iii Water as a poor solvent for some polar molecules
7.6.iv Non-aqueous solvents
8 Redox Chemistry and Groups 1, 2 and 7
8.1 Oxidation number rules
8.2 Calculating oxidation numbers
8.3 Roman numerals for oxidation numbers
8.4 Formulae from oxidation numbers
8.5 Oxidation and reduction
8.6 Oxidising and reducing agents
8.7 Disproportionation
8.8 Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions
8.9 Oxidation numbers of metals and non-metals
8.10 Ionic half-equations
8.11 Ionisation energy trends in Groups 1 and 2
8.12 Reactivity trends in Groups 1 and 2
8.13 Reactions of Group 1 and 2 elements
8.14 Reactions of Group 1 and 2 oxides and hydroxides
8.14.i Oxides of Group 1 and 2 elements with water and dilute acid
8.14.ii Hydroxides of Group 1 and 2 elements with dilute acid
8.15 Solubility of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates
8.16 Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates
8.17 Flame colours
8.18 Experiments on Group 1 and 2 compounds
8.18.i Thermal decomposition of nitrates and carbonates
8.18.ii Flame colours in compounds of Group 1 and 2 elements
8.19 Tests for ions
8.19.i Tests for carbonate and hydrogencarbonate ions
8.19.ii Test for sulfate ions
8.19.iii Test for ammonium ions
8.20 Solution concentrations and acid-base titrations
8.21 Core practical 3: concentration of hydrochloric acid
8.22 Uncertainty in volumetric analysis
8.23 Core practical 4: preparing a standard solution
8.24 Trends in Group 7
8.24.i Melting and boiling temperatures and physical state at room temperature
8.24.ii Electronegativity
8.24.iii Reactivity down the group
8.25 Reactivity of halogens with halide ions
8.26 Redox reactions of the halogens
8.26.i Oxidation reactions with Group 1 and 2 metals
8.26.ii Chlorine with water and water treatment
8.26.iii Chlorine with cold alkali to form bleach
8.26.iv The disproportionation reaction of chlorine with hot alkali
8.26.v Reactions analogous to those specified above
8.27 Reactions of halides and hydrogen halides
8.27.i Group 1 halides with concentrated sulfuric acid
8.27.ii Halide ions with silver nitrate
8.27.iii Hydrogen halides with ammonia and water
8.28 Predicting properties of fluorine and astatine
9 Introduction to Kinetics and Equilibria
9.1 Collision theory and rates of reaction
9.2 Activation energy
9.3 Calculating the rate of a reaction
9.3.i The time taken for a reaction, using rate = 1/time
9.3.ii Rate from the gradient of a graph
9.4 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and temperature
9.5 Catalysts and alternative reaction routes
9.6 Reaction profiles with and without a catalyst
9.7 Catalysts and sustainable industrial processes
9.8 Catalysts and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
9.9 Dynamic equilibrium
9.9.i Equal forward and backward rates
9.9.ii The concentrations of the reactants and the products remain constant
9.10 Factors affecting the position of equilibrium
9.11 Compromise between yield and rate
10 Organic Chemistry: Halogenoalkanes, Alcohols and Spectra
10.1 Classifying organic reactions
10.2 Reaction mechanisms
10.3 Heterolytic bond breaking
10.4 Nucleophiles
10.5 Bond polarity and reaction mechanisms
10.6 Naming and drawing halogenoalkanes
10.7 Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
10.8 Reactions of halogenoalkanes
10.8.i Halogenoalkanes with aqueous alkali
10.8.ii Halogenoalkanes with ethanolic potassium hydroxide
10.8.iii Aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol (where water acts as a nucleophile)
10.8.iv Halogenoalkanes with ammonia
10.8.v Halogenoalkanes with potassium cyanide
10.9 Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms
10.9.i Aqueous potassium hydroxide
10.9.ii Ammonia
10.10 Relative rates of hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes
10.10.i Primary, secondary and tertiary structural isomers of a halogenoalkane
10.10.ii Primary chloro-, bromo- and iodoalkanes using aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol
10.11 Core practical 5: rates of hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes
10.12 Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
10.13 Bond enthalpy and halogenoalkane reactivity
10.14 Core practical 6: chlorination of 2-methylpropan-2-ol
10.15 Naming and drawing alcohols
10.16 Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
10.17 Reactions of alcohols
10.17.i Oxygen in air (combustion)
10.17.ii Halogenating agents
10.17.iii Concentrated phosphoric acid to form alkenes by elimination
10.18 Oxidation of alcohols with dichromate(VI)
10.18.i Primary alcohols to aldehydes
10.18.ii Primary alcohols to carboxylic acids
10.18.iii Secondary alcohols to produce ketones
10.19 Preparing and purifying a liquid organic compound
10.19.i Heating under reflux
10.19.ii Extraction with a solvent using a separating funnel
10.19.iii Distillation
10.19.iv Drying with an anhydrous salt
10.19.v Boiling temperature determination
10.20 Core practical 7: oxidation of propan-1-ol
10.21 Mass spectra of organic compounds
10.22 Infrared spectroscopy
10.22.i C–H stretching absorptions in alkanes, alkenes and aldehydes
10.22.ii C=C stretching absorption in alkenes
10.22.iii O–H stretching absorptions in alcohols and carboxylic acids
10.22.iv C=O stretching absorptions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
10.22.v C–X stretching absorption in halogenoalkanes
10.22.vi N-H stretching absorption in amines
10.23 Core practical 8: inorganic and organic unknowns

U3 Practical Skills in Chemistry I

U4 Rates, Equilibria and Further Organic Chemistry

11 Kinetics
11.1 Terms used in kinetics
11.1.i Rate of reaction
11.1.ii Rate equations
11.1.iii Order with respect to a substance
11.1.iv Overall order of a reaction
11.1.v Rate constant
11.1.vi Half-life
11.1.vii Rate-determining step
11.1.viii Activation energy
11.1.ix Heterogeneous and homogeneous catalyst
11.2 Half-life and first order reactions
11.3 Experimental techniques for rate data
11.3.i Titration
11.3.ii Colorimetry
11.3.iii Mass change
11.3.iv Volume of gas evolved
11.3.v Other suitable technique(s) for a given reaction
11.4 Experiments to investigate reaction rates
11.4.i Initial-rate method
11.4.ii Continuous monitoring method
11.5 Deducing orders of reaction
11.5.i A concentration-time graph
11.5.ii A rate-concentration graph
11.5.iii An initial-rate method
11.6 Iodination of propanone
11.6.i Orders in the iodination of propanone
11.6.ii Species in the rate-determining step
11.6.iii Deducing a possible mechanism
11.7 Rate-determining step and rate equations
11.8 Deducing reaction mechanisms
11.9 Rate equations and SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
11.10 Finding activation energy
11.11 Heterogeneous catalysts in industry
11.12 Core practicals 9a and 9b: iodine-propanone and clock reactions
11.13 Core practical 10: activation energy of a reaction
12 Entropy and Energetics
12.1 Enthalpy changes and spontaneous reactions
12.2 Entropy as disorder
12.3 Entropy, temperature and state
12.4 Natural direction of change and total entropy
12.5 Entropy changes in physical and chemical processes
12.5.i Changes of state
12.5.ii Dissolving of a solid ionic lattice
12.5.iii Change in number of moles
12.6 Total entropy change
12.7 Entropy change of the system
12.8 Entropy change of the surroundings
12.9 Feasibility of reactions
12.9.i Balance of system and surroundings entropy
12.9.ii Effect of temperature on feasibility
12.10 Positive total entropy and feasibility
12.11 Thermodynamic and kinetic stability
12.12 Lattice energy and related terms
12.12.i Standard enthalpy change of atomisation, ∆atH
12.12.ii Electron affinity
12.12.iii Lattice energy
12.13 Born-Haber cycles
12.14 Experimental and theoretical lattice energies
12.15 Polarisation and covalency in ionic bonds
12.16 Enthalpy changes of solution and hydration
12.17 Calculating enthalpy change of solution
12.18 Ionic charge, radius, hydration and lattice energy
12.19 Predicting solubility of ionic compounds
13 Chemical Equilibria
13.1 Expressions for Kc
13.2 Expressions for Kp
13.3 Calculating equilibrium constants
13.4 Effect of conditions on equilibrium composition
13.5 Factors not affecting the equilibrium constant
13.6 Effect of temperature on equilibrium constants
13.7 Temperature, equilibrium position and the equilibrium constant
13.8 Effects of temperature changes
13.8.i The value of ∆Stotal
13.8.ii The magnitude of the equilibrium constant, since ∆Stotal = R lnK
13.9 Using equilibrium constants to predict extent of reaction
14 Acid-base Equilibria
14.1 Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases
14.2 Conjugate acid-base pairs
14.3 Definition of pH
14.4 Calculating pH
14.5 Hydrogen ion concentration from pH
14.6 Strong and weak acids
14.7 pH of a strong acid
14.8 Acid dissociation constant Ka
14.9 pH of a weak acid
14.10 Ionic product of water, Kw
14.11 pH of a strong base
14.12 pKa and pKw
14.13 pH experiments
14.13.i Measuring pH of acids, bases and salts
14.13.ii pH of strong and weak acids after dilution
14.14 Ka from experimental data
14.15 Titration curves
14.16 Choosing an indicator
14.17 Buffer solutions
14.18 Buffer action
14.19 pH of a buffer solution
14.20 Preparing a buffer of given pH
14.21 Titration curves and buffers
14.21.i Demonstrating buffer action
14.21.ii Ka from the half-neutralisation point
14.22 Buffers in biological environments
14.22.i Buffers in cells and blood
14.22.ii Buffers in foods
14.23 Core practical 11: Ka of a weak acid
15 Organic Chemistry: Carbonyls, Carboxylic Acids and Chirality
15.1 Optical isomerism and chirality
15.2 Chiral centres and enantiomers
15.3 Optical activity
15.4 Racemic mixtures
15.5 Optical activity as evidence for mechanisms
15.6 Naming and drawing aldehydes and ketones
15.7 Hydrogen bonding in aldehydes and ketones
15.7.i No intermolecular hydrogen bonds
15.7.ii Hydrogen bonds with water
15.8 Reactions of carbonyl compounds
15.8.i Fehling’s or Benedict’s solution, Tollens’ reagent and acidified dichromate(VI) ions
15.8.ii Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III) (lithium aluminium hydride) in dry ether (ethoxyethane)
15.8.iii Nucleophilic addition of HCN
15.8.iv 2,4-DNPH test for carbonyl groups
15.8.v Iodine in the presence of alkali (the iodoform test)
15.9 Naming and drawing carboxylic acids
15.10 Hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acids
15.11 Preparation of carboxylic acids
15.12 Reactions of carboxylic acids
15.12.i Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate(III) (lithium aluminium hydride) in dry ether (ethoxyethane)
15.12.ii Bases to produce salts
15.12.iii Phosphorus(V) chloride (phosphorus pentachloride)
15.12.iv Alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst
15.13 Naming and drawing acyl chlorides and esters
15.14 Reactions of acyl chlorides
15.14.i Water
15.14.ii Alcohols
15.14.iii Concentrated ammonia
15.14.iv Amines
15.15 Hydrolysis of esters
15.16 Polyesters
15.17 High resolution mass spectrometry
15.17.i Structures from accurate relative molecular masses
15.17.ii Calculating accurate relative molecular masses
15.18 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy
15.19 Using carbon-13 NMR data
15.19.i Carbon environments and chemical shifts
15.19.ii Number of peaks in a carbon-13 NMR spectrum
15.20 Proton NMR spectroscopy
15.20.i Proton environments and chemical shifts
15.20.ii Relative peak areas
15.20.iii Splitting patterns and the n+1 rule
15.20.iv Predicting proton NMR spectra
15.21 Principles of chromatography
15.22 Rf values in paper and thin-layer chromatography
15.23 HPLC and gas chromatography

U5 Transition Metals and Organic Nitrogen Chemistry

16 Redox Equilibria
16.1 Oxidation and reduction in s-, p- and d-block elements
16.2 Standard electrode potential
16.3 Standard conditions for electrode potentials
16.3.i Temperature of 298 K
16.3.ii Gas pressure of 100 kPa
16.3.iii Solution concentration of 1.00 mol dm⁻³
16.4 The standard hydrogen electrode
16.5 Measuring standard electrode potentials
16.5.i Metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in aqueous solution
16.5.ii Ions of the same element with different oxidation numbers
16.6 Core practical 12: electrochemical cells
16.7 Calculating a standard emf
16.8 Cell diagrams
16.9 Conditions when measuring electrode potentials
16.10 Electrode potentials and feasibility of reactions
16.11 Cell emf, total entropy change and ln K
16.12 Limitations of predictions from electrode potentials
16.13 The electrochemical series
16.14 Predicting feasibility of disproportionation
16.15 Redox titration calculations
16.16 Uncertainty in measurements
16.17 Core practicals 13a and 13b: redox titrations
16.17.i Iron(II) ions and potassium manganate(VII)
16.17.ii Sodium thiosulfate and iodine
16.18 Fuel cells
16.19 The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
17 Transition Metals and their Chemistry
17.1 Transition metals
17.2 Electronic configurations of d-block elements
17.3 Variable oxidation numbers of transition metals
17.4 Ligands
17.5 Dative covalent bonding in complex ions
17.6 Complex ions
17.7 Coloured aqueous transition metal ions
17.8 Colour and d-orbital splitting
17.9 Colourless aqueous and complex ions
17.10 Coordination number
17.11 Causes of colour changes in transition metal ions
17.11.i Oxidation number of the ion
17.11.ii Ligand
17.11.iii Coordination number of the complex
17.12 Monodentate ligands
17.13 Octahedral complexes
17.14 Tetrahedral complexes
17.15 Square planar complexes and cis-platin
17.16 Bidentate and hexadentate ligands
17.17 Haemoglobin and ligand exchange
17.18 Oxidation states of vanadium
17.19 Interconversion of vanadium oxidation states
17.20 Reduction and formation of dichromate(VI)
17.20.i Reduction of dichromate(VI) with zinc
17.20.ii Formation of dichromate(VI) from Cr³⁺ ions
17.21 Dichromate(VI) and chromate(VI) equilibrium
17.22 Reactions of aqueous transition metal ions
17.23 Amphoteric behaviour, deprotonation and ligand exchange
17.24 Ligand exchange and colour change
17.24.i [Cu(NH₃)₄(H₂O)₂]²⁺ from [Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺
17.24.ii [CuCl₄]²⁻ from [Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺
17.24.iii [CoCl₄]²⁻ from [Co(H₂O)₆]²⁺
17.25 Entropy and the chelate effect
17.26 Transition metals as catalysts
17.27 Heterogeneous catalysts
17.28 Vanadium(V) oxide in the contact process
17.29 Catalytic converters
17.29.i Adsorption onto the catalyst surface
17.29.ii Desorption from the catalyst surface
17.30 Homogeneous catalysts
17.31 Iron ions catalysing the iodide–peroxodisulfate reaction
17.32 Autocatalysis by manganese(II) ions
17.33 Core practical 14: preparing a transition metal complex
18 Organic Chemistry – Arenes
18.1 Evidence for the structure of benzene
18.2 Delocalised model of benzene
18.3 Resistance of benzene to bromination
18.4 Reactions of benzene
18.4.i Oxygen in air (combustion to form a smoky flame)
18.4.ii Bromine, in the presence of a catalyst
18.4.iii A mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids
18.4.iv Fuming sulfuric acid
18.4.v Halogenoalkanes and acyl chlorides with aluminium chloride as catalyst (Friedel-Crafts reaction)
18.5 Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene
18.6 Reaction of phenol with bromine water
19 Organic Nitrogen Compounds: Amines, Amides, Amino Acids and Proteins
19.1 Naming and drawing amides, amines and amino acids
19.2 Reactions of primary aliphatic and aromatic amines
19.2.i Water to form an alkaline solution
19.2.ii Acids to form salts
19.2.iii Halogenoalkanes
19.2.iv Ethanoyl chloride
19.2.v Copper(II) ions to form a complex ion
19.3 Solubility and basicity of amines
19.4 Preparation of primary aliphatic amines
19.4.i Amines from halogenoalkanes
19.4.ii Amines by reduction of nitriles
19.5 Preparation of aromatic amines
19.6 Diazonium ions and azo dyes
19.7 Preparation of amides from acyl chlorides
19.8 Condensation and addition polymerisation
19.8.i Condensation polymerisation for the formation of polyamides such as nylon and proteins
19.8.ii Addition polymerisation, including poly(propenamide) and poly(ethenol)
19.9 Repeat units of polymers
19.10 Properties of polyamides and poly(ethenol)
19.11 Behaviour of amino acids
19.11.i Acidity and basicity and the formation of zwitterions
19.11.ii Effect of aqueous solutions on plane-polarised monochromatic light
19.11.iii Formation of peptide bonds by condensation polymerisation
19.12 Core practical 15: inorganic and organic unknowns
20 Organic Synthesis
20.1 Deducing formulae from analytical data
20.2 Grignard reagents and lengthening carbon chains
20.3 Solving problems in organic chemistry
20.3.i Predicting properties of unfamiliar compounds
20.3.ii Planning reaction schemes
20.3.iii Selecting practical procedures
20.3.iv Identifying appropriate control measures to reduce risk based on data of hazards
20.4 Core practical 16: preparing aspirin
20.5 Preparation and purification techniques
20.5.i Refluxing
20.5.ii Purification by washing, including with water and sodium carbonate solution
20.5.iii Solvent extraction
20.5.iv Recrystallisation
20.5.v Drying
20.5.vi Distillation
20.5.vii Steam distillation
20.5.viii Melting temperature determination
20.5.ix Boiling temperature determination