Specification points
Edexcel A-level Chemistry 9CH0
590 points in 19 topics, with Edexcel's codes and titles.
Grade boundaries·Edexcel command words
Codes and titles are read by a script from Edexcel's published specification and have not been checked by a person. What each point covers is in the specification itself: Edexcel’s specification.
1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
- 1.1 Structure of an atom
- 1.2 Relative mass and charge of subatomic particles
- 1.3 Atomic number and mass number
- 1.4 Numbers of subatomic particles in atoms and ions
- 1.5 Isotopes
- 1.6 Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass
- 1.7 Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass
- 1.8 Mass spectrometry and relative atomic mass
- 1.9 Mass spectra of diatomic molecules
- 1.10 Mass spectrometry and relative molecular mass
- 1.11 First and successive ionisation energies
- 1.12 Factors affecting ionisation energy
- 1.13 Ionisation energy trend across a period
- 1.14 Ionisation energy trend down a group
- 1.15 Evidence for electronic configuration
- 1.15(i) Atomic emission spectra as evidence for quantum shells
- 1.15(ii) Successive ionisation energies as evidence for shells and groups
- 1.15(iii) First ionisation energies as evidence for sub-shells
- 1.16 Electrons in the first four quantum shells
- 1.17 Orbitals and electron spin
- 1.18 Shapes of s- and p-orbitals
- 1.19 Electrons in s, p and d-subshells
- 1.20 Filling of subshells and paired spins
- 1.21 Electronic configurations of atoms and ions
- 1.21(i) Electronic configurations of atoms up to Z = 36
- 1.21(ii) Electronic configurations of s- and p-block ions
- 1.22 s, p and d-block elements
- 1.23 Electronic configuration and chemical properties
- 1.24 Periodicity
- 1.25 Trends in properties across periods 2 and 3
- 1.25(i) Melting and boiling temperatures across periods 2 and 3
- 1.25(ii) Ionisation energy across periods 2 and 3
- 1.26 Illustrating periodicity with data
2 Bonding and Structure
- 2A Bonding
- 2A.1 Ionic bonding
- 2A.2 Ionic radius, charge and bond strength
- 2A.3 Formation of ions
- 2A.4 Dot-and-cross diagrams of ions
- 2A.5 Trends in ionic radii
- 2A.6 Evidence for the existence of ions
- 2A.7 Covalent bonding
- 2A.8 Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent substances
- 2A.8(i) Molecules with single, double and triple bonds
- 2A.8(ii) Species with dative covalent bonding
- 2A.9 Bond length and bond strength
- 2A.10 Electron pair repulsion and molecular shape
- 2A.11 Shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions
- 2A.12 Predicting shapes with electron-pair repulsion theory
- 2A.13 Electronegativity
- 2A.14 Bonding continuum and bond polarity
- 2A.15 Polar bonds and polar molecules
- 2A.16 Types of intermolecular force
- 2A.16(i) London forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
- 2A.16(ii) Permanent dipoles
- 2A.16(iii) Hydrogen bonds
- 2A.17 Hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and HF
- 2A.18 Anomalous properties of water
- 2A.18(i) High melting and boiling temperatures of water
- 2A.18(ii) The density of ice compared to that of water
- 2A.19 Predicting hydrogen bonding
- 2A.20 Intermolecular forces and physical properties
- 2A.20(i) Boiling temperatures of alkanes and chain length
- 2A.20(ii) Chain branching and boiling temperature
- 2A.20(iii) Volatility of alcohols compared with alkanes
- 2A.20(iv) Boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides, HF to HI
- 2A.21 Choice of solvents
- 2A.21(i) Water dissolving ionic compounds
- 2A.21(ii) Water dissolving simple alcohols
- 2A.21(iii) Water as a poor solvent for some polar molecules
- 2A.21(iv) Non-aqueous solvents
- 2A.22 Metallic bonding
- 2B Structure
- 2B.23 Giant lattice structures
- 2B.23(i) Ionic solids (giant ionic lattices)
- 2B.23(ii) Covalently bonded solids (giant covalent lattices)
- 2B.23(iii) Solid metals (giant metallic lattices)
- 2B.24 Simple molecular structures
- 2B.25 Structures of carbon: graphite, diamond and graphene
- 2B.26 Predicting structure and bonding from data
- 2B.27 Predicting physical properties from structure and bonding
- 2B.27(i) Types of particle present
- 2B.27(ii) Structure of the substance
- 2B.27(iii) Type of bonding and intermolecular forces
3 Redox I
- 3.1 Oxidation number
- 3.2 Calculating oxidation numbers
- 3.3 Oxidation and reduction: electrons and oxidation numbers
- 3.4 Oxidation and reduction as electron loss and gain
- 3.5 Oxidising agents
- 3.6 Reducing agents
- 3.7 Disproportionation reactions
- 3.8 Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions
- 3.9 Roman numerals for oxidation numbers
- 3.10 Writing formulae from oxidation numbers
- 3.11 Metals forming positive ions
- 3.12 Non-metals forming negative ions
- 3.13 Ionic half-equations
4 Inorganic Chemistry and the Periodic Table
- 4A The elements of Groups 1 and 2
- 4A.1 Group 2 ionisation energy trend
- 4A.2 Group 2 reactivity trend
- 4A.3 Reactions of Group 2 elements
- 4A.4 Reactions of Group 2 oxides and hydroxides
- 4A.5 Solubility of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates
- 4A.6 Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates
- 4A.7 Flame colours of Group 1 and 2 compounds
- 4A.8 Experiments on thermal decomposition and flame colours
- 4A.8(i) Thermal decomposition of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates
- 4A.8(ii) Flame colours in compounds of Group 1 and 2 elements
- 4B The elements of Group 7 (halogens)
- 4B.9 Group 7 physical properties and electronegativity
- 4B.10 Group 7 reactivity trend
- 4B.11 Halogen displacement reactions
- 4B.12 Redox reactions of the halogens
- 4B.12(i) Oxidation reactions with Group 1 and 2 metals
- 4B.12(ii) Chlorine with water and water treatment
- 4B.12(iii) Chlorine with cold alkali to form bleach
- 4B.12(iv) Chlorine with hot alkali
- 4B.12(v) Analogous reactions of the other halogens
- 4B.13 Reactions of halides and hydrogen halides
- 4B.13(i) Group 1 halides with concentrated sulfuric acid
- 4B.13(ii) Halide ions with silver nitrate and ammonia
- 4B.13(iii) Hydrogen halides with ammonia and with water
- 4B.14 Predicting properties of fluorine and astatine
- 4C Analysis of inorganic compounds
- 4C.15 Tests for ions
- 4C.15(i) Tests for carbonate and hydrogencarbonate ions
- 4C.15(ii) Test for sulfate ions
- 4C.15(iii) Test for ammonium ions
5 Formulae, Equations and Amounts of Substance
- 5.1 The mole
- 5.2 The Avogadro constant
- 5.3 Molar mass
- 5.4 Empirical and molecular formulae
- 5.5 Calculating empirical and molecular formulae
- 5.5(i) Empirical formulae from experimental data
- 5.5(ii) Molecular formulae, including pV = nRT
- 5.6 Balanced full and ionic equations
- 5.7 Calculating amounts of substance
- 5.8 Reacting masses
- 5.9 Reacting volumes of gases from amount of substance
- 5.10 Reacting volumes of gases from molar volume
- CP1 Measure the molar volume of a gas
- 5.11 Solution concentrations and titrations
- CP2 Core practical: standard solution and sodium hydroxide concentration
- CP3 Find the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid
- 5.12 Measurement uncertainties and errors
- 5.12(i) Calculating measurement uncertainties and errors
- 5.12(ii) Sources of error in experimental procedures
- 5.13 Minimising percentage error and uncertainty
- 5.14 Percentage yield and atom economy
- 5.15 Equations for test tube reactions
- 5.15(i) Displacement reactions
- 5.15(ii) Reactions of acids
- 5.15(iii) Precipitation reactions
- 5.16 Risks, hazards and precautions in practical work
6 Organic Chemistry I
- 6A Introduction to organic chemistry
- 6A.1 Hydrocarbons
- 6A.2 Representing organic molecules
- 6A.3 Homologous series and functional groups
- 6A.4 IUPAC nomenclature
- 6A.5 Classifying organic reactions
- 6A.6 Structural isomerism
- 6A.7 E/Z stereoisomerism
- 6B Alkanes
- 6B.8 General formula of alkanes
- 6B.9 Alkanes and cycloalkanes as saturated hydrocarbons
- 6B.10 Alkane fuels from crude oil
- 6B.11 Pollutants from alkane combustion
- 6B.12 Problems caused by combustion pollutants
- 6B.13 Catalytic converters
- 6B.14 Alternative fuels
- 6B.15 Radicals and homolytic fission
- 6B.15(i) A radical as a species with an unpaired electron
- 6B.15(ii) Radicals formed by homolytic fission
- 6B.16 Combustion and radical substitution of alkanes
- 6B.16(i) Oxygen in air (combustion)
- 6B.16(ii) Halogens by radical substitution
- 6B.17 Limitations of radical substitution in synthesis
- 6C Alkenes
- 6C.18 General formula of alkenes
- 6C.19 Alkenes and cycloalkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- 6C.20 Sigma and pi bonds in alkenes
- 6C.21 Electrophiles
- 6C.22 Addition reactions of alkenes
- 6C.22(i) Hydrogen with a nickel catalyst to form alkanes
- 6C.22(ii) Halogens to produce dihalogenoalkanes
- 6C.22(iii) Hydrogen halides to produce halogenoalkanes
- 6C.22(iv) Steam with an acid catalyst to produce alcohols
- 6C.22(v) Acidified potassium manganate(VII) to produce a diol
- 6C.23 Heterolytic bond fission
- 6C.24 Electrophilic addition mechanisms
- 6C.24(i) Halogens
- 6C.24(ii) Hydrogen halides, including unsymmetrical alkenes
- 6C.24(iii) Other given binary compounds
- 6C.25 Test for a C=C double bond
- 6C.26 Addition polymerisation
- 6C.27 Separating and processing waste polymers
- 6C.27(i) Recycling
- 6C.27(ii) Incineration to release energy
- 6C.27(iii) Use as a feedstock for cracking
- 6C.28 Sustainable use of polymer materials
- 6C.29 Limiting problems of polymer disposal
- 6C.29(i) Biodegradable polymers
- 6C.29(ii) Removing toxic gases from plastic incineration
- 6D Halogenoalkanes
- 6D.30 Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
- 6D.31 Nucleophiles
- 6D.32 Reactions of halogenoalkanes
- 6D.32(i) Aqueous potassium hydroxide to produce alcohols
- 6D.32(ii) Aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol (where water acts as a nucleophile)
- 6D.32(iii) Potassium cyanide to produce nitriles
- 6D.32(iv) Ammonia to produce primary amines
- 6D.32(v) Ethanolic potassium hydroxide to produce alkenes
- 6D.33 Comparing rates of halogenoalkane hydrolysis
- 6D.33(i) Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
- 6D.33(ii) Chloro-, bromo- and iodoalkanes with aqueous silver nitrate
- CP4 Investigation of the rates of hydrolysis of some halogenoalkanes
- 6D.34 Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes
- 6D.35 Bond enthalpy and halogenoalkane reactivity
- 6D.36 Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms
- 6D.36(i) Aqueous potassium hydroxide
- 6D.36(ii) Ammonia
- 6E Alcohols
- 6E.37 Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
- 6E.38 Reactions of alcohols
- 6E.38(i) Oxygen in air (combustion)
- 6E.38(ii) Halogenating agents
- 6E.38(iii) Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to oxidise alcohols
- 6E.38(iv) Concentrated phosphoric acid to form alkenes by elimination
- 6E.39 Preparing and purifying a liquid organic compound
- 6E.39(i) Heating under reflux
- 6E.39(ii) Extraction with a solvent in a separating funnel
- 6E.39(iii) Distillation
- 6E.39(iv) Drying with an anhydrous salt
- 6E.39(v) Boiling temperature determination
- CP5 The oxidation of ethanol
- CP6 Chlorination of 2-methylpropan-2-ol using concentrated hydrochloric acid
7 Modern Analytical Techniques I
- 7A Mass spectrometry
- 7A.1 Mass spectrometry of organic compounds
- 7A.1(i) Relative molecular mass from the molecular ion peak
- 7A.1(ii) Structures from the molecular ion and fragmentation patterns
- 7B Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
- 7B.2 Infrared spectroscopy
- 7B.2(i) C–H stretching absorption in alkanes, alkenes and aldehydes
- 7B.2(ii) C=C stretching absorption in alkenes
- 7B.2(iii) O–H stretching absorption in alcohols
- 7B.2(iv) C=O stretching absorption in aldehydes and ketones
- 7B.2(v) C=O and broad O–H absorptions in carboxylic acids
- 7B.2(vi) N–H stretching absorption in amines
- CP7 Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknowns
8 Energetics I
- 8.1 Standard conditions
- 8.2 Enthalpy change
- 8.3 Enthalpy level diagrams
- 8.4 Standard enthalpy changes: definitions
- 8.4(i) Standard enthalpy change of reaction
- 8.4(ii) Standard enthalpy change of formation
- 8.4(iii) Standard enthalpy change of combustion
- 8.4(iv) Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation
- 8.5 Experiments to measure enthalpy changes
- 8.5(i) Processing results with Q = mcΔT
- 8.5(ii) Sources of error and assumptions in enthalpy experiments
- 8.6 Calculating enthalpy changes from experimental results
- 8.7 Enthalpy cycles and Hess's law
- 8.8 Calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's law
- CP8 To determine the enthalpy change of a reaction using Hess’s Law
- 8.9 Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy
- 8.10 Enthalpy changes from mean bond enthalpies
- 8.11 Calculating mean bond enthalpies
9 Kinetics I
- 9.1 Collision theory and factors affecting rate
- 9.2 Activation energy
- 9.3 Calculating rate of reaction
- 9.3(i) Rate from the time taken for reaction
- 9.3(ii) Rate from the gradient of a graph
- 9.4 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and temperature
- 9.5 Catalysts and alternative reaction routes
- 9.6 Reaction profiles with and without catalysts
- 9.7 Catalysts and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
- 9.8 Heterogeneous catalysts in industry
- 9.9 Economic benefits of catalysts
10 Equilibrium I
11 Equilibrium II
12 Acid-base Equilibria
- 12.1 Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases
- 12.2 Proton transfer in acid-base reactions
- 12.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs
- 12.4 Definition of pH
- 12.5 pH from hydrogen ion concentration
- 12.6 Hydrogen ion concentration from pH
- 12.7 Strong and weak acids
- 12.8 pH of a strong acid
- 12.9 Acid dissociation constant Ka
- 12.10 pH of a weak acid
- 12.11 Ionic product of water Kw
- 12.12 pH of a strong base
- 12.13 pKa and pKw
- 12.14 Analysing data from pH experiments
- 12.14(i) Measuring the pH of acids, bases and salts
- 12.14(ii) pH of strong and weak acids after dilution
- 12.15 Ka of a weak acid from experimental data
- 12.16 Titration curves
- 12.17 Choosing an indicator
- 12.18 Buffer solutions
- 12.19 Action of a buffer solution
- 12.20 pH of a buffer solution
- 12.21 Preparing a buffer of a given pH
- 12.22 Buffer action and Ka from a titration curve
- 12.22(i) Demonstrating buffer action
- 12.22(ii) Ka from the pH at half-neutralisation
- 12.23 Enthalpy of neutralisation of strong and weak acids
- 12.24 Control of blood pH
- CP9 Finding the Ka value for a weak acid
13 Energetics II
- 13A Lattice energy
- 13A.1 Definition of lattice energy
- 13A.2 Enthalpy change of atomisation and electron affinity
- 13A.2(i) Enthalpy change of atomisation
- 13A.2(ii) Electron affinity
- 13A.3 Born-Haber cycles
- 13A.4 Lattice energy and ionic bond strength
- 13A.5 Experimental and theoretical lattice energies
- 13A.6 Polarisation of ions
- 13A.7 Polarising power of cations
- 13A.8 Polarisability of anions
- 13A.9 Enthalpy changes of solution and hydration
- 13A.10 Energy cycles for solution, hydration and lattice energy
- 13A.11 Ionic charge, radius, lattice and hydration enthalpies
- 13A.11(i) Lattice energy
- 13A.11(ii) Enthalpy change of hydration
- 13B Entropy
- 13B.12 Enthalpy alone does not decide feasibility
- 13B.13 Entropy and the direction of change
- 13B.14 Causes of entropy changes
- 13B.14(i) Changes of state
- 13B.14(ii) Dissolving of a solid ionic lattice
- 13B.14(iii) Change in the number of moles
- 13B.15 Total entropy change
- 13B.16 Entropy change of the system
- 13B.17 Entropy change of the surroundings
- 13B.18 Gibbs energy and feasibility
- 13B.19 Using ΔG to predict feasibility
- 13B.19(i) Predicting whether a reaction is feasible
- 13B.19(ii) Temperature at which a reaction becomes feasible
- 13B.20 ΔG and the equilibrium constant
- 13B.21 Feasible reactions that do not occur
- 13B.22 Kinetic inhibition of feasible reactions
14 Redox II
- 14.1 Redox in terms of electron transfer
- 14.2 Redox in terms of oxidation number
- 14.3 Standard electrode potential
- 14.4 Standard conditions for electrode potentials
- 14.4(i) Temperature of 298 K
- 14.4(ii) Gas pressure of 100 kPa
- 14.4(iii) Ion concentration of 1.00 mol dm⁻³
- 14.5 The standard hydrogen electrode
- 14.6 Measuring standard electrode potentials
- 14.6(i) Metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in solution
- 14.6(ii) Ions of the same element with different oxidation numbers
- CP10 Investigating some electrochemical cells
- 14.7 Calculating standard emf
- 14.8 Cell diagrams
- 14.9 Conditions when measuring electrode potentials
- 14.10 Predicting feasibility from electrode potentials
- 14.11 Emf, entropy change and ln K
- 14.12 Limitations of electrode potential predictions
- 14.13 The electrochemical series
- 14.14 Disproportionation and electrode potentials
- 14.15 Storage cells
- 14.16 Fuel cells
- 14.17 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell reactions
- 14.18 Redox titration calculations
- 14.19 Methods for redox titrations
- CP11 Redox titration
15 Transition Metals
- 15A Principles of transition metal chemistry
- 15A.1 Electronic configurations of d-block elements
- 15A.2 Definition of a transition metal
- 15A.3 Variable oxidation numbers of transition metals
- 15A.4 Ligands
- 15A.5 Dative bonding in complex ions
- 15A.6 Complex ions
- 15A.7 Coloured transition metal ions
- 15A.8 d-orbital splitting and colour
- 15A.9 Colourless complex ions
- 15A.10 Causes of colour changes in complexes
- 15A.10(i) Change in oxidation number
- 15A.10(ii) Change of ligand
- 15A.10(iii) Change in coordination number
- 15A.11 Coordination number
- 15A.12 Monodentate ligands
- 15A.13 Octahedral complexes
- 15A.14 Tetrahedral complexes
- 15A.15 Square planar complexes and cis-platin
- 15A.16 Why cis-platin is supplied as a single isomer
- 15A.17 Bidentate and multidentate ligands
- 15A.18 Haemoglobin as an iron(II) complex
- 15A.19 Carbon monoxide replacing oxygen in haemoglobin
- 15B Reactions of transition metal elements
- 15B.20 Colours of vanadium oxidation states
- 15B.21 Interconverting vanadium oxidation states
- 15B.22 Reduction and formation of dichromate(VI)
- 15B.22(i) Reduction of dichromate(VI) with zinc
- 15B.22(ii) Formation of dichromate(VI) from Cr³⁺ ions
- 15B.23 Dichromate(VI) and chromate(VI) equilibrium
- 15B.24 Reactions of metal ions with hydroxide and ammonia
- 15B.25 Ligand exchange versus amphoteric behaviour
- 15B.26 Ligand exchange and colour change in copper and cobalt complexes
- 15B.26(i) Hexaaquacopper(II) with ammonia, via copper(II) hydroxide
- 15B.26(ii) Hexaaquacopper(II) to tetrachlorocuprate(II)
- 15B.26(iii) Hexaaquacobalt(II) to tetrachlorocobaltate(II)
- 15B.27 Ligand substitution changing coordination number
- 15B.28 Chelate effect and entropy
- 15B.29 Transition metals as catalysts
- 15B.30 Heterogeneous catalysts
- 15B.31 Vanadium(V) oxide in the contact process
- 15B.32 How a catalytic converter works
- 15B.32(i) Adsorption of CO and NO onto the catalyst
- 15B.32(ii) Weakening of bonds and chemical reaction
- 15B.32(iii) Desorption of CO₂ and N₂ from the catalyst
- 15B.33 Homogeneous catalysts
- 15B.34 Fe2+ catalysing the iodide–peroxodisulfate reaction
- 15B.35 Autocatalysis by Mn2+ ions
- CP12 The preparation of a transition metal complex
16 Kinetics II
- 16.1 Terms used in reaction kinetics
- 16.1(i) Rate of reaction
- 16.1(ii) Rate equation
- 16.1(iii) Order with respect to a substance
- 16.1(iv) Overall order of reaction
- 16.1(v) Rate constant
- 16.1(vi) Half-life
- 16.1(vii) Rate-determining step
- 16.1(viii) Activation energy
- 16.1(ix) Heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts
- 16.2 Rate equations
- 16.3 Experimental techniques for rate data
- 16.3(i) Titration
- 16.3(ii) Colorimetry
- 16.3(iii) Mass change
- 16.3(iv) Volume of gas evolved
- 16.3(v) Other suitable techniques
- 16.4 Initial-rate and continuous monitoring methods
- 16.4(i) Initial-rate method
- 16.4(ii) Continuous monitoring method
- 16.5 Rate and half-life of first-order reactions
- 16.6 Orders of reaction from graphs
- 16.6(i) Concentration-time graphs
- 16.6(ii) Rate-concentration graphs
- 16.7 Orders of reaction from initial rates
- 16.8 Iodination of propanone kinetics
- 16.8(i) Orders in the iodination of propanone
- 16.8(ii) Species in the rate-determining step
- 16.8(iii) Deducing a possible mechanism
- 16.9 Rate-determining step and rate equation
- 16.10 Deducing a reaction mechanism
- 16.11 Rate equations as evidence for SN1 and SN2
- 16.12 Activation energy by graphical methods
- CP13 Rates of reaction
- CP14 Finding the activation energy of a reaction
17 Organic Chemistry II
- 17A Chirality
- 17A.1 Optical isomerism and chirality
- 17A.2 Chiral centres and mirror images
- 17A.3 Optical activity
- 17A.4 Racemic mixtures
- 17A.5 Optical activity as evidence for SN1 and SN2
- 17B Carbonyl compounds
- 17B.6 Aldehyde and ketone functional groups
- 17B.7 Hydrogen bonding and properties of aldehydes and ketones
- 17B.7(i) No intermolecular hydrogen bonds
- 17B.7(ii) Hydrogen bonds with water
- 17B.8 Reactions of carbonyl compounds
- 17B.8(i) Oxidation by Fehling's, Benedict's, Tollens' or dichromate(VI)
- 17B.8(ii) Reduction with lithium tetrahydridoaluminate
- 17B.8(iii) Nucleophilic addition of HCN
- 17B.8(iv) 2,4-DNPH test for carbonyl groups
- 17B.8(v) Iodine in the presence of alkali
- 17C Carboxylic acids
- 17C.9 Carboxylic acid functional group
- 17C.10 Hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acids
- 17C.11 Preparation of carboxylic acids
- 17C.12 Reactions of carboxylic acids
- 17C.12(i) Reduction with lithium tetrahydridoaluminate
- 17C.12(ii) Bases to produce salts
- 17C.12(iii) Phosphorus(V) chloride (phosphorus pentachloride)
- 17C.12(iv) Alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst
- 17C.13 Acyl chloride and ester functional groups
- 17C.14 Reactions of acyl chlorides
- 17C.14(i) Water
- 17C.14(ii) Alcohols
- 17C.14(iii) Concentrated ammonia
- 17C.14(iv) Amines
- 17C.15 Hydrolysis of esters
- 17C.16 Polyesters and condensation polymerisation
18 Organic Chemistry III
- 18A Arenes - benzene
- 18A.1 Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene
- 18A.2 Evidence for delocalisation in benzene
- 18A.3 Resistance of benzene to bromination
- 18A.4 Reactions of benzene
- 18A.4(i) Combustion with a smoky flame
- 18A.4(ii) Bromine, in the presence of a catalyst
- 18A.4(iii) A mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids
- 18A.4(iv) Friedel-Crafts reactions with aluminium chloride
- 18A.5 Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene
- 18A.6 Phenol and bromine water
- 18A.7 Ease of bromination of phenol
- 18B Amines, amides, amino acids and proteins
- 18B.8 Amine, amide and amino acid identification
- 18B.8(i) The amine and amide functional groups
- 18B.8(ii) Molecules that are amino acids
- 18B.9 Reactions of primary aliphatic amines
- 18B.9(i) Water to form an alkaline solution
- 18B.9(ii) Acids to form salts
- 18B.9(iii) Ethanoyl chloride
- 18B.9(iv) Halogenoalkanes
- 18B.9(v) Copper(II) ions to form complex ions
- 18B.10 Basicity of ammonia and amines
- 18B.11 Preparation of primary aliphatic amines
- 18B.11(i) Amines from halogenoalkanes
- 18B.11(ii) Amines by reduction of nitriles
- 18B.12 Reduction of aromatic nitro-compounds
- 18B.13 Preparation of amides
- 18B.14 Polyamide formation
- 18B.15 Repeat units of condensation polymers
- 18B.15(i) Dicarboxylic acids and diols
- 18B.15(ii) Dicarboxylic acids and diamines
- 18B.15(iii) Amino acids
- 18B.16 Properties of 2-amino acids
- 18B.16(i) Zwitterions, acidity and basicity
- 18B.16(ii) Effect on plane-polarised monochromatic light
- 18B.17 Peptide bonds: formation and hydrolysis
- 18B.17(i) Peptide bonds from condensation polymerisation
- 18B.17(ii) Hydrolysis of proteins and chromatography of amino acids
- CP15 Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknowns
- 18C Organic Synthesis
- 18C.18 Deducing formulae from analytical data
- 18C.19 Planning multistep reaction schemes
- 18C.20 Grignard reagents and extending carbon chains
- 18C.21 Choosing practical procedures for organic reactions
- 18C.22 Preparing and purifying organic compounds
- 18C.22(i) Refluxing
- 18C.22(ii) Purification by washing
- 18C.22(iii) Solvent extraction
- 18C.22(iv) Recrystallisation
- 18C.22(v) Drying
- 18C.22(vi) Distillation, including steam distillation
- 18C.22(vii) Melting temperature determination
- 18C.22(viii) Boiling temperature determination
- CP16 The preparation of aspirin
19 Modern Analytical Techniques II
- 19A Mass Spectrometry
- 19A.1 High resolution mass spectra
- 19A.1(i) Structures from accurate relative molecular masses
- 19A.1(ii) Calculating accurate relative molecular mass
- 19B Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
- 19B.2 13C NMR spectroscopy
- 19B.3 Interpreting 13C NMR data
- 19B.3(i) Carbon environments and chemical shifts
- 19B.3(ii) Number of peaks in a ¹³C NMR spectrum
- 19B.4 High resolution proton NMR
- 19B.5 Interpreting proton NMR data
- 19B.5(i) Proton environments and chemical shifts
- 19B.5(ii) Relative peak areas and numbers of protons
- 19B.5(iii) Splitting patterns and the n+1 rule
- 19B.5(iv) Predicting proton NMR spectra
- 19C Chromatography
- 19C.6 Principles of chromatography
- 19C.7 Rf values
- 19C.8 HPLC and gas chromatography
- 19C.8(i) HPLC and GC as column chromatography
- 19C.8(ii) Separation by retention time
- 19C.8(iii) Use with mass spectrometry