Specification points
Cambridge Cambridge IGCSE Sciences - Co-ordinated (Double) 0654
843 points in 3 topics, with Cambridge's codes and titles.
Grade boundaries·Cambridge command words
Codes and titles are read by a script from Cambridge's published specification and have not been checked by a person. What each point covers is in the specification itself: Cambridge’s specification.
B Biology
- B1 Characteristics of living organisms
- B1.1 Characteristics of living organisms
- B1.1.1 Characteristics of living organisms
- B2 Cells
- B2.1 Cell structure
- B2.1.1 Plant and animal cell structure
- B2.1.2 Bacterial cell structure
- B2.1.3 Identifying cell structures in images
- B2.1.4 Functions of cell structures
- B2.1.5 New cells from cell division
- B2.1.6 Specialised cells and their functions
- B2.1.7 Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and organisms
- B2.2 Size of specimens
- B2.2.1 Magnification formula
- B2.2.2 Calculating magnification and specimen size
- B2.2.3 Converting millimetres and micrometres (Supplement)
- B3 Movement into and out of cells
- B3.1 Diffusion
- B3.1.1 Diffusion
- B3.1.2 Diffusion across cell membranes
- B3.1.3 Importance of diffusion in organisms
- B3.1.4 Factors affecting diffusion (Supplement)
- B3.2 Osmosis
- B3.2.1 Osmosis through partially permeable membranes
- B3.2.2 Osmosis across cell membranes
- B3.2.3 Effects of solutions on plant tissues
- B3.2.4 Osmosis and water potential (Supplement)
- B3.2.5 Turgor, plasmolysis and flaccidity (Supplement)
- B3.2.6 Water potential in water uptake and loss (Supplement)
- B3.3 Active transport
- B3.3.1 Active transport
- B3.3.2 Importance of active transport (Supplement)
- B4 Biological molecules
- B4.1 Biological molecules
- B4.1.1 Elements in carbohydrates, fats and proteins
- B4.1.2 Large molecules from smaller units
- B4.1.3 Food tests
- B5 Enzymes
- B5.1 Enzymes
- B5.1.1 Enzymes as biological catalysts
- B5.1.2 Effect of temperature and pH on enzymes
- B5.1.3 Enzyme action (Supplement)
- B5.1.4 Enzyme specificity (Supplement)
- B5.1.5 Temperature, collisions and denaturation (Supplement)
- B5.1.6 pH, shape and denaturation (Supplement)
- B6 Plant nutrition
- B6.1 Photosynthesis
- B6.1.1 Photosynthesis
- B6.1.2 Word equation for photosynthesis
- B6.1.3 Chlorophyll in chloroplasts
- B6.1.4 Investigating what photosynthesis needs
- B6.1.5 Balanced equation for photosynthesis (Supplement)
- B6.1.6 Chlorophyll and energy transfer (Supplement)
- B6.1.7 Uses and storage of photosynthesis products (Supplement)
- B6.1.8 Nitrate and magnesium ions in plants (Supplement)
- B6.1.9 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis (Supplement)
- B6.1.10 Gas exchange in aquatic plants in light and dark (Supplement)
- B6.2 Leaf structure
- B6.2.1 Leaf adaptations for photosynthesis
- B6.2.2 Structures in a dicotyledonous leaf
- B6.2.3 How leaf structures aid photosynthesis (Supplement)
- B7 Human nutrition
- B7.1 Diet
- B7.1.1 Balanced diet
- B7.1.2 Dietary sources and roles of nutrients
- B7.1.3 Causes of scurvy and rickets
- B7.2 Digestive system
- B7.2.1 Organs of the digestive system
- B7.2.2 Functions of digestive organs
- B7.3 Digestion
- B7.3.1 Physical digestion
- B7.3.2 Physical digestion and surface area
- B7.3.3 Chemical digestion
- B7.3.4 Role of chemical digestion in absorption
- B7.3.5 Amylase, protease and lipase (Supplement)
- B7.3.6 Where digestive enzymes are secreted and act (Supplement)
- B7.3.7 Hydrochloric acid in the stomach (Supplement)
- B7.3.8 Bile neutralising stomach acid (Supplement)
- B7.3.9 Bile and emulsification (Supplement)
- B8 Transport in plants
- B8.1 Xylem and phloem
- B8.1.1 Functions of xylem and phloem
- B8.1.2 Position of xylem and phloem
- B8.2 Water uptake
- B8.2.1 Root hair cells
- B8.2.2 Root hair surface area and uptake
- B8.2.3 Pathway of water through a plant
- B8.3 Transpiration
- B8.3.1 Transpiration
- B8.3.2 Evaporation and diffusion of water from leaves
- B8.3.3 Temperature and wind speed on transpiration
- B8.3.4 Factors affecting transpiration rate (Supplement)
- B8.3.5 Wilting (Supplement)
- B8.4 Translocation
- B8.4.1 Translocation (Supplement)
- B8.4.2 Sources and sinks (Supplement)
- B9 Transport in animals
- B9.1 Circulatory systems
- B9.1.1 Circulatory system
- B9.1.2 Single circulation in fish (Supplement)
- B9.1.3 Double circulation in mammals (Supplement)
- B9.1.4 Advantages of double circulation (Supplement)
- B9.2 Heart
- B9.2.1 Structure of the mammalian heart
- B9.2.2 Arteries and veins
- B9.2.3 Monitoring heart activity
- B9.2.4 Physical activity and heart rate
- B9.2.5 Coronary heart disease and risk factors
- B9.2.6 Diet and exercise in reducing heart disease
- B9.2.7 How the heart functions (Supplement)
- B9.2.8 Explaining heart rate changes with activity (Supplement)
- B9.3 Blood vessels
- B9.3.1 Structure of arteries, veins and capillaries
- B9.3.2 Functions of capillaries
- B9.3.3 Artery and vein structure and blood pressure (Supplement)
- B9.3.4 Capillary structure and function (Supplement)
- B9.3.5 Main blood vessels of heart and lungs (Supplement)
- B9.4 Blood
- B9.4.1 Components of blood
- B9.4.2 Identifying red and white blood cells
- B9.4.3 Functions of blood components
- B9.4.4 Lymphocytes and phagocytes (Supplement)
- B9.4.5 Functions of lymphocytes and phagocytes (Supplement)
- B9.4.6 Roles of blood clotting (Supplement)
- B10 Diseases and immunity
- B10.1 Diseases and immunity
- B10.1.1 Pathogens
- B10.1.2 Transmissible diseases
- B10.1.3 Direct and indirect transmission
- B10.1.4 Body defences
- B10.1.5 Controlling the spread of disease
- B10.1.6 Vaccinations
- B10.1.7 Features of viruses (Supplement)
- B10.1.8 Active immunity (Supplement)
- B10.1.9 Antigens (Supplement)
- B10.1.10 Antibodies (Supplement)
- B10.1.11 Antibody-antigen specificity (Supplement)
- B10.1.12 Gaining active immunity (Supplement)
- B10.1.13 Vaccination (Supplement)
- B10.1.14 Vaccination and disease control (Supplement)
- B11 Gas exchange in humans
- B11.1 Gas exchange in humans
- B11.1.1 Parts of the breathing system
- B11.1.2 Investigating inspired and expired air
- B11.1.3 Composition of inspired and expired air
- B11.1.4 Physical activity and breathing
- B11.1.5 Features of gas exchange surfaces (Supplement)
- B11.1.6 Explaining differences in inspired and expired air (Supplement)
- B11.1.7 Carbon dioxide and breathing rate (Supplement)
- B12 Respiration
- B12.1 Respiration
- B12.1.1 Uses of energy in organisms
- B12.1.2 Aerobic respiration
- B12.1.3 Word equation for aerobic respiration
- B12.1.4 Balanced equation for aerobic respiration (Supplement)
- B12.1.5 Anaerobic respiration (Supplement)
- B12.1.6 Energy yield of anaerobic respiration (Supplement)
- B12.1.7 Anaerobic respiration in muscles (Supplement)
- B12.1.8 Lactic acid and oxygen debt (Supplement)
- B12.1.9 Removing the oxygen debt (Supplement)
- B13 Coordination and response
- B13.1 Coordination and response
- B13.1.1 Electrical impulses in neurones
- B13.1.2 Central and peripheral nervous systems
- B13.1.3 Role of the nervous system
- B13.1.4 Sensory, relay and motor neurones
- B13.1.5 Reflex arc
- B13.1.6 Reflex actions
- B13.1.7 Sense organs
- B13.2 Hormones
- B13.2.1 Hormones
- B13.2.2 Endocrine glands and their hormones
- B13.2.3 Adrenaline and its effects
- B13.2.4 Glucagon (Supplement)
- B13.3 Homeostasis
- B13.3.1 Homeostasis (Supplement)
- B13.3.2 Negative feedback (Supplement)
- B13.3.3 Control of blood glucose (Supplement)
- B13.3.4 Structures of the skin (Supplement)
- B13.3.5 Controlling body temperature (Supplement)
- B14 Drugs
- B14.1 Drugs
- B14.1.1 Drugs
- B14.1.2 Antibiotics for bacterial infections
- B14.1.3 Antibiotic resistance
- B14.1.4 Antibiotics and viruses
- B14.1.5 Limiting antibiotic resistance (Supplement)
- B15 Reproduction
- B15.1 Asexual reproduction
- B15.1.1 Asexual reproduction
- B15.1.2 Examples of asexual reproduction
- B15.1.3 Pros and cons of asexual reproduction (Supplement)
- B15.2 Sexual reproduction
- B15.2.1 Sexual reproduction
- B15.2.2 Species
- B15.2.3 Haploid gametes and diploid zygotes (Supplement)
- B15.2.4 Pros and cons of sexual reproduction (Supplement)
- B15.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
- B15.3.1 Parts of an insect-pollinated flower
- B15.3.2 Functions of flower parts
- B15.3.3 Pollination
- B15.3.4 Fertilisation in flowering plants
- B15.3.5 Adaptations of insect- and wind-pollinated flowers
- B15.3.6 Conditions for seed germination
- B15.3.7 Anthers and stigmas of wind-pollinated flowers (Supplement)
- B15.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
- B15.4.1 Male reproductive system
- B15.4.2 Female reproductive system
- B15.4.3 Human fertilisation
- B15.4.4 Testosterone, oestrogen and puberty
- B15.4.5 The menstrual cycle
- B15.4.6 Adaptations of sperm (Supplement)
- B15.4.7 Adaptations of egg cells (Supplement)
- B15.4.8 Comparing male and female gametes (Supplement)
- B15.5 Sexually transmitted infections
- B15.5.1 Sexually transmitted infections
- B15.5.2 HIV as an STI pathogen
- B15.5.3 HIV and AIDS
- B15.5.4 Transmission of HIV
- B15.5.5 Controlling the spread of STIs
- B16 Inheritance
- B16.1 Chromosomes and genes
- B16.1.1 Chromosomes, DNA and genes
- B16.1.2 Genes
- B16.1.3 Alleles
- B16.1.4 Inheritance of sex
- B16.1.5 Haploid nucleus (Supplement)
- B16.1.6 Diploid nucleus (Supplement)
- B16.1.7 Chromosome pairs in diploid cells (Supplement)
- B16.2 Cell division
- B16.2.1 Mitosis (Supplement)
- B16.2.2 Roles of mitosis (Supplement)
- B16.2.3 Chromosome replication before mitosis (Supplement)
- B16.2.4 Chromosome separation in mitosis (Supplement)
- B16.2.5 Meiosis and gametes (Supplement)
- B16.2.6 Meiosis as reduction division (Supplement)
- B16.3 Monohybrid inheritance
- B16.3.1 Inheritance
- B16.3.2 Genotype
- B16.3.3 Phenotype
- B16.3.4 Homozygous
- B16.3.5 Pure-breeding
- B16.3.6 Heterozygous
- B16.3.7 Heterozygotes are not pure-breeding
- B16.3.8 Dominant alleles
- B16.3.9 Recessive alleles
- B16.3.10 Pedigree diagrams
- B16.3.11 Monohybrid crosses and ratios
- B16.3.12 Punnett squares
- B17 Variation and selection
- B17.1 Variation
- B17.1.1 Variation
- B17.1.2 Continuous variation
- B17.1.3 Discontinuous variation
- B17.1.4 Mutation
- B17.1.5 Mutation and new alleles
- B17.2 Selection
- B17.2.1 Natural selection
- B17.2.2 Selective breeding
- B17.2.3 Artificial selection over generations
- B17.2.4 Antibiotic resistant bacteria and natural selection (Supplement)
- B18 Organisms and their environment
- B18.1 Energy flow
- B18.1.1 The Sun as energy source
- B18.1.2 Energy flow through organisms
- B18.2 Food chains and food webs
- B18.2.1 Food chains
- B18.2.2 Constructing food chains
- B18.2.3 Food webs
- B18.2.4 Producers
- B18.2.5 Consumers
- B18.2.6 Levels of consumers
- B18.2.7 Herbivores
- B18.2.8 Carnivores
- B18.2.9 Decomposers
- B18.2.10 Human impact on food webs
- B18.2.11 Trophic levels (Supplement)
- B18.2.12 Identifying trophic levels (Supplement)
- B18.2.13 Inefficient energy transfer between trophic levels (Supplement)
- B18.2.14 Why food chains are short (Supplement)
- B18.2.15 Energy efficiency of eating crops versus livestock (Supplement)
- B18.3 Carbon cycle
- B18.3.1 The carbon cycle
- B19 Human influences on ecosystems
- B19.1 Habitat destruction
- B19.1.1 Ecosystems
- B19.1.2 Biodiversity
- B19.1.3 Reasons for habitat destruction
- B19.1.4 Effects of deforestation
- B19.1.5 Effects of deforestation (Supplement)
- B19.2 Conservation
- B19.2.1 Why species become endangered or extinct
- B19.2.2 Conserving endangered species
C Chemistry
- C1 States of matter
- C1.1 Solids, liquids and gases
- C1.1.1 Properties of solids, liquids and gases
- C1.1.2 Particle structure of solids, liquids and gases
- C1.1.3 Changes of state
- C1.1.4 Temperature, pressure and gas volume
- C1.1.5 Changes of state and heating and cooling curves (Supplement)
- C1.1.6 Kinetic theory of gas volume changes (Supplement)
- C1.2 Diffusion
- C1.2.1 Diffusion and kinetic particle theory
- C1.2.2 Molecular mass and rate of diffusion (Supplement)
- C2 Atoms, elements and compounds
- C2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
- C2.1.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
- C2.2 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
- C2.2.1 Structure of the atom
- C2.2.2 Charges and masses of subatomic particles
- C2.2.3 Proton number
- C2.2.4 Mass number
- C2.2.5 Electronic configuration
- C2.2.6 Electron shells, groups and periods
- C2.3 Isotopes
- C2.3.1 Isotopes
- C2.3.2 Symbols for atoms and ions
- C2.3.3 Chemical properties of isotopes (Supplement)
- C2.4 Ions and ionic bonds
- C2.4.1 Formation of cations and anions
- C2.4.2 Ionic bonds
- C2.4.3 Ionic bonding in Group I and VII compounds
- C2.4.4 Properties of ionic compounds
- C2.4.5 Ionic bonding between metals and non-metals (Supplement)
- C2.4.6 Explaining properties of ionic compounds (Supplement)
- C2.4.7 Giant ionic lattices (Supplement)
- C2.5 Simple molecules and covalent bonds
- C2.5.1 Covalent bonds
- C2.5.2 Covalent bonding in simple molecules
- C2.5.3 Properties of simple molecular compounds
- C2.5.4 Covalent bonding in further molecules (Supplement)
- C2.5.5 Explaining properties of simple molecular compounds (Supplement)
- C2.6 Giant covalent structures
- C2.6.1 Graphite and diamond
- C2.6.2 Uses of graphite and diamond (Supplement)
- C2.7 Metallic bonding
- C2.7.1 Metallic bonding (Supplement)
- C2.7.2 Explaining properties of metals (Supplement)
- C3 Stoichiometry
- C3.1 Formulas
- C3.1.1 Formulae of named substances
- C3.1.2 Molecular formula
- C3.1.3 Deducing formulae from models
- C3.1.4 Word equations
- C3.1.5 Balancing symbol equations with state symbols
- C3.1.6 Formulae of ionic compounds (Supplement)
- C3.1.7 Symbol and ionic equations (Supplement)
- C3.1.8 Deducing symbol equations (Supplement)
- C3.2 Relative masses of atoms and molecules
- C3.2.1 Relative atomic mass
- C3.2.2 Relative molecular and formula mass
- C3.2.3 Reacting masses in simple proportions
- C3.3 The mole and the Avogadro constant
- C3.3.1 Units of concentration
- C3.3.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant (Supplement)
- C3.3.3 Calculations with moles and molar mass (Supplement)
- C3.3.4 Molar gas volume (Supplement)
- C3.3.5 Stoichiometric calculations (Supplement)
- C4 Electrochemistry
- C4.1 Electrolysis
- C4.1.1 Electrolysis
- C4.1.2 Parts of an electrolytic cell
- C4.1.3 Products of electrolysis of common electrolytes
- C4.1.4 Charge transfer in electrolysis (Supplement)
- C4.1.5 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate (Supplement)
- C4.1.6 Products at the cathode and anode (Supplement)
- C4.1.7 Electrolysis of molten binary compounds (Supplement)
- C4.1.8 Ionic half-equations at the cathode (Supplement)
- C4.2 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells
- C4.2.1 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells
- C4.2.2 Fuel cells versus petrol engines (Supplement)
- C5 Chemical energetics
- C5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
- C5.1.1 Exothermic reactions
- C5.1.2 Endothermic reactions
- C5.1.3 Interpreting reaction pathway diagrams (Supplement)
- C5.1.4 Enthalpy change (Supplement)
- C5.1.5 Activation energy (Supplement)
- C5.1.6 Drawing reaction pathway diagrams (Supplement)
- C5.1.7 Bond breaking and bond making (Supplement)
- C6 Chemical reactions
- C6.1 Physical and chemical changes
- C6.1.1 Physical and chemical changes
- C6.2 Rate of reaction
- C6.2.1 Factors affecting rate of reaction
- C6.2.2 Catalysts
- C6.2.3 Measuring rate of reaction
- C6.2.4 Interpreting rate data
- C6.2.5 Explaining rate changes with collision theory (Supplement)
- C6.2.6 Catalysts and activation energy (Supplement)
- C6.2.7 Collision theory (Supplement)
- C6.3 Redox
- C6.3.1 Redox reactions
- C6.3.2 Oxidation and reduction as oxygen transfer
- C6.3.3 Redox as gain and loss of oxygen
- C6.3.4 Identifying oxidation and reduction
- C6.3.5 Oxidation as electron loss (Supplement)
- C6.3.6 Reduction as electron gain (Supplement)
- C7 Acids, bases and salts
- C7.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases
- C7.1.1 Reactions of acids
- C7.1.2 Acids and indicators
- C7.1.3 Bases and alkalis
- C7.1.4 Reactions of bases with acids
- C7.1.5 Alkalis and indicators
- C7.1.6 pH and universal indicator
- C7.1.7 Neutralisation
- C7.2 Oxides
- C7.2.1 Acidic and basic oxides
- C7.2.2 Amphoteric oxides (Supplement)
- C7.2.3 Aluminium and zinc oxides (Supplement)
- C7.3 Preparation of salts
- C7.3.1 Preparing soluble salts
- C7.3.2 Hydrated and anhydrous substances
- C7.3.3 Preparing insoluble salts by precipitation (Supplement)
- C8 The Periodic Table
- C8.1 Arrangement of elements
- C8.1.1 Arrangement of the Periodic Table
- C8.1.2 Metallic to non-metallic character across a period
- C8.1.3 Group similarities and electronic configuration
- C8.1.4 Identifying trends in groups (Supplement)
- C8.2 Group I properties
- C8.2.1 Group I alkali metals
- C8.2.2 Predicting Group I properties (Supplement)
- C8.3 Group VII properties
- C8.3.1 Group VII halogens
- C8.3.2 Appearance of the halogens
- C8.3.3 Halogen displacement reactions (Supplement)
- C8.3.4 Predicting Group VII properties (Supplement)
- C8.4 Transition elements
- C8.4.1 Transition elements
- C8.5 Noble gases
- C8.5.1 Noble gases
- C9 Metals
- C9.1 Properties of metals
- C9.1.1 Physical properties of metals and non-metals
- C9.1.2 Chemical properties of metals
- C9.2 Uses of metals
- C9.2.1 Uses of metals
- C9.3 Alloys and their properties
- C9.3.1 Alloys
- C9.3.2 Alloys are harder and stronger
- C9.3.3 Uses of alloys
- C9.3.4 Identifying alloys from structure diagrams
- C9.3.5 Why alloys are harder (Supplement)
- C9.4 Reactivity series
- C9.4.1 Reactivity series
- C9.4.2 Reactions of metals with water, steam and acid
- C9.4.3 Deducing reactivity from results
- C9.4.4 Reactivity and displacement reactions (Supplement)
- C9.5 Corrosion of metals
- C9.5.1 Conditions for rusting
- C9.5.2 Barrier methods
- C9.5.3 How barrier methods prevent rusting
- C9.5.4 Galvanising (Supplement)
- C9.5.5 Sacrificial protection (Supplement)
- C9.6 Extraction of metals
- C9.6.1 Ease of metal extraction
- C9.6.2 Extracting iron by reduction
- C9.6.3 Aluminium from bauxite
- C9.6.4 Extraction of iron in the blast furnace (Supplement)
- C10 Chemistry of the environment
- C10.1 Water
- C10.1.1 Chemical tests for water
- C10.1.2 Testing water purity
- C10.1.3 Why distilled water is used
- C10.1.4 Treatment of domestic water
- C10.2 Air quality and climate
- C10.2.1 Composition of clean air
- C10.2.2 Sources of air pollutants
- C10.2.3 Effects of air pollutants
- C10.2.4 Reducing climate change effects
- C10.2.5 Reducing acid rain (Supplement)
- C10.2.6 Greenhouse gases and global warming (Supplement)
- C10.2.7 Nitrogen oxides and catalytic converters (Supplement)
- C11 Organic chemistry
- C11.1 Formulas and terminology
- C11.1.1 Displayed formulae
- C11.1.2 Saturated compounds
- C11.1.3 Unsaturated compounds
- C11.1.4 Homologous series (Supplement)
- C11.1.5 Characteristics of a homologous series (Supplement)
- C11.2 Naming organic compounds
- C11.2.1 Displayed formulae of simple organic compounds
- C11.2.2 Identifying compound type from name or formula
- C11.2.3 Naming unbranched alkanes and alkenes (Supplement)
- C11.3 Fuels
- C11.3.1 Fossil fuels
- C11.3.2 Methane in natural gas
- C11.3.3 Hydrocarbons
- C11.3.4 Petroleum as a mixture
- C11.3.5 Fractional distillation of petroleum
- C11.3.6 Uses of petroleum fractions
- C11.3.7 Trends in petroleum fractions (Supplement)
- C11.4 Alkanes
- C11.4.1 Bonding in alkanes
- C11.4.2 Properties of alkanes
- C11.5 Alkenes
- C11.5.1 Bonding in alkenes
- C11.5.2 Bromine water test for unsaturation
- C11.5.3 Cracking (Supplement)
- C11.5.4 Addition reactions of alkenes (Supplement)
- C11.6 Alcohols
- C11.6.1 Combustion of ethanol
- C11.6.2 Uses of ethanol
- C11.7 Polymers
- C11.7.1 Polymers and monomers
- C11.7.2 Addition polymerisation of poly(ethene)
- C11.7.3 Repeat units in polymers (Supplement)
- C11.7.4 Addition polymers and their monomers (Supplement)
- C11.7.5 Addition versus condensation polymerisation (Supplement)
- C11.7.6 Structure of nylon (Supplement)
- C12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
- C12.1 Experimental design
- C12.1.1 Measuring apparatus
- C12.1.2 Solvents, solutes and solutions
- C12.2 Acid-base titrations
- C12.2.1 Acid–base titration
- C12.2.2 Titration end-point
- C12.3 Chromatography
- C12.3.1 Paper chromatography of coloured substances
- C12.3.2 Interpreting chromatograms
- C12.3.3 Rf values (Supplement)
- C12.4 Separation and purification
- C12.4.1 Separation and purification methods
- C12.4.2 Choosing separation techniques
- C12.4.3 Purity from melting and boiling points
- C12.5 Identification of ions and gases
- C12.5.1 Tests for anions
- C12.5.2 Tests for aqueous cations
- C12.5.3 Tests for gases
- C12.5.4 Flame tests
P Physics
- P1 Motion, forces and energy
- P1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
- P1.1.1 Measuring length and volume
- P1.1.2 Measuring time intervals
- P1.1.3 Averages from multiple measurements
- P1.1.4 Scalars and vectors (Supplement)
- P1.1.5 Scalar quantities (Supplement)
- P1.1.6 Vector quantities (Supplement)
- P1.2 Motion
- P1.2.1 Speed
- P1.2.2 Average speed
- P1.2.3 Distance–time and speed–time graphs
- P1.2.4 Acceleration and deceleration
- P1.2.5 Describing motion from graphs
- P1.2.6 Speed from distance–time gradient
- P1.2.7 Distance from area under speed–time graph
- P1.2.8 Velocity (Supplement)
- P1.2.9 Acceleration (Supplement)
- P1.2.10 Constant and changing acceleration (Supplement)
- P1.2.11 Acceleration from speed–time gradient (Supplement)
- P1.2.12 Deceleration in calculations (Supplement)
- P1.2.13 Acceleration of free fall (Supplement)
- P1.3 Mass and weight
- P1.3.1 Mass
- P1.3.2 Weight
- P1.3.3 Gravitational field strength
- P1.3.4 Weight as effect of a gravitational field (Supplement)
- P1.3.5 Field strength and free-fall acceleration (Supplement)
- P1.4 Density
- P1.4.1 Density
- P1.4.2 Measuring density
- P1.4.3 Floating or sinking from density
- P1.5 Forces
- P1.5.1 Effects of forces
- P1.5.1.1 Effects of forces
- P1.5.1.2 Resultant of forces along a line
- P1.5.1.3 Friction
- P1.5.1.4 Drag in liquids
- P1.5.1.5 Air resistance
- P1.5.1.6 Newton's first law
- P1.5.1.7 Force equals mass times acceleration (Supplement)
- P1.5.1.8 Load–extension graphs (Supplement)
- P1.5.1.9 Spring constant (Supplement)
- P1.5.1.10 Limit of proportionality (Supplement)
- P1.5.2 Turning effect of forces
- P1.5.2.1 Moment of a force
- P1.5.2.2 Calculating moments
- P1.5.2.3 Equilibrium
- P1.5.2.4 Principle of moments with one force each side (Supplement)
- P1.5.3 Centre of gravity
- P1.5.3.1 Centre of gravity
- P1.5.3.2 Finding the centre of gravity of a lamina
- P1.5.3.3 Centre of gravity and stability
- P1.6 Energy, work and power
- P1.6.1 Energy
- P1.6.1.1 Energy stores
- P1.6.1.2 Energy transfers between stores
- P1.6.1.3 Conservation of energy
- P1.6.1.4 Kinetic energy (Supplement)
- P1.6.1.5 Gravitational potential energy (Supplement)
- P1.6.2 Work
- P1.6.2.1 Work done and energy transferred
- P1.6.2.2 Mechanical work
- P1.6.3 Energy resources
- P1.6.3.1 Energy resources and electricity generation
- P1.6.3.2 Pros and cons of energy resources
- P1.6.3.3 Efficiency of energy transfer
- P1.6.3.4 The Sun as main energy source (Supplement)
- P1.6.3.5 Nuclear fusion in the Sun (Supplement)
- P1.6.3.6 Nuclear fission in reactors (Supplement)
- P1.6.3.7 Efficiency equations (Supplement)
- P1.6.4 Power
- P1.6.4.1 Power
- P1.7 Pressure
- P1.7.1 Pressure, force and area
- P1.7.2 Pressure
- P2 Thermal physics
- P2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter
- P2.1.1 States of matter
- P2.1.1.1 Properties of solids, liquids and gases
- P2.1.1.2 Changes of state
- P2.1.2 Particle model
- P2.1.2.1 Particle structure of states
- P2.1.2.2 Particle motion and temperature
- P2.1.2.3 Evidence for the kinetic particle model
- P2.1.2.4 Particle forces and properties of matter (Supplement)
- P2.1.2.5 Brownian motion explained (Supplement)
- P2.1.2.6 Gas pressure from particle collisions (Supplement)
- P2.1.3 Pressure changes
- P2.1.3.1 Gas pressure, temperature and volume (Supplement)
- P2.2 Thermal properties and temperature
- P2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
- P2.2.1.1 Thermal expansion
- P2.2.1.2 Applications of thermal expansion (Supplement)
- P2.2.2 Melting, boiling and evaporation
- P2.2.2.1 Melting and boiling points of water
- P2.2.2.2 Condensation and solidification
- P2.2.2.3 Evaporation
- P2.2.2.4 Evaporative cooling
- P2.2.2.5 Melting and boiling
- P2.2.2.6 Boiling versus evaporation (Supplement)
- P2.2.2.7 Factors affecting evaporation (Supplement)
- P2.3 Transfer of thermal energy
- P2.3.1 Conduction
- P2.3.1.1 Thermal conductors and insulators
- P2.3.1.2 Mechanisms of thermal conduction (Supplement)
- P2.3.2 Convection
- P2.3.2.1 Convection
- P2.3.2.2 Convection in liquids and gases
- P2.3.2.3 Convection and density (Supplement)
- P2.3.3 Radiation
- P2.3.3.1 Thermal radiation
- P2.3.3.2 Surface colour and texture and radiation
- P2.3.3.3 Earth's temperature and radiation balance (Supplement)
- P2.3.3.4 Experiments on thermal emitters (Supplement)
- P2.3.3.5 Experiments on thermal absorbers (Supplement)
- P2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer
- P2.3.4.1 Applications of thermal transfer
- P3 Waves
- P3.1 General properties of waves
- P3.1.1 Waves transfer energy, not matter
- P3.1.2 Wave motion
- P3.1.3 Features of a wave
- P3.1.4 Reflection and refraction of waves
- P3.1.5 Wave speed equation
- P3.1.6 Transverse waves (Supplement)
- P3.1.7 Longitudinal waves (Supplement)
- P3.1.8 Diffraction through a narrow gap (Supplement)
- P3.1.9 Diffraction through a gap (Supplement)
- P3.2 Light
- P3.2.1 Reflection of light
- P3.2.1.1 Normal and angles of incidence and reflection
- P3.2.1.2 Images in a vertical plane mirror
- P3.2.1.3 Law of reflection
- P3.2.1.4 Plane mirror images are virtual (Supplement)
- P3.2.1.5 Diagrams and calculations for plane mirrors (Supplement)
- P3.2.2 Refraction of light
- P3.2.2.1 Refraction
- P3.2.2.2 Normal and angles of incidence and refraction
- P3.2.2.3 Light passing between media
- P3.2.2.4 Refractive index (Supplement)
- P3.2.2.5 Snell's law (Supplement)
- P3.2.2.6 Total internal reflection (Supplement)
- P3.2.2.7 Critical angle (Supplement)
- P3.2.2.8 Optical fibres (Supplement)
- P3.2.3 Thin converging lens
- P3.2.3.1 Converging lens and parallel rays
- P3.2.3.2 Principal axis, focus and focal length
- P3.2.3.3 Ray diagrams for real images
- P3.2.3.4 Describing images
- P3.2.3.5 Ray diagrams for virtual images (Supplement)
- P3.2.3.6 Real and virtual images (Supplement)
- P3.2.3.7 Magnifying glass (Supplement)
- P3.2.4 Dispersion of light
- P3.2.4.1 Dispersion of light
- P3.2.4.2 Colours of the visible spectrum
- P3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
- P3.3.1 Regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
- P3.3.2 Speed of electromagnetic waves
- P3.3.3 Applications of electromagnetic waves
- P3.3.4 Harmful effects of electromagnetic radiation
- P3.3.5 Speed of light value (Supplement)
- P3.4 Sound
- P3.4.1 Production of sound
- P3.4.2 Range of human hearing
- P3.4.3 Sound needs a medium
- P3.4.4 Measuring the speed of sound
- P3.4.5 Loudness and pitch
- P3.4.6 Echoes
- P3.4.7 Ultrasound
- P3.4.8 Compressions and rarefactions (Supplement)
- P3.4.9 Pressure in compressions and rarefactions (Supplement)
- P3.4.10 Speed of sound in different media (Supplement)
- P4 Electricity and magnetism
- P4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
- P4.1.1 Magnetic poles and forces
- P4.1.2 Temporary and permanent magnets
- P4.1.3 Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
- P4.1.4 Permanent magnets versus electromagnets
- P4.1.5 Magnetic fields (Supplement)
- P4.1.6 Direction of a magnetic field (Supplement)
- P4.1.7 Induced magnetism (Supplement)
- P4.2 Electrical quantities
- P4.2.1 Electrical charge
- P4.2.1.1 Positive and negative charges
- P4.2.1.2 Attraction and repulsion of charges
- P4.2.1.3 Charging by friction and detecting charge
- P4.2.1.4 Charging by electron transfer
- P4.2.1.5 Conductors and insulators
- P4.2.1.6 Coulombs (Supplement)
- P4.2.1.7 Electric fields (Supplement)
- P4.2.1.8 Direction of an electric field (Supplement)
- P4.2.2 Electric current
- P4.2.2.1 Current as flow of charge
- P4.2.2.2 Current in metals
- P4.2.2.3 Using ammeters
- P4.2.2.4 Direct and alternating current
- P4.2.2.5 Current, charge and time (Supplement)
- P4.2.2.6 Conduction in metals (Supplement)
- P4.2.2.7 Conventional current and electron flow (Supplement)
- P4.2.3 Voltage (electromotive force and potential difference)
- P4.2.3.1 Voltage as cause of current
- P4.2.3.2 Sharing voltage in series circuits
- P4.2.3.3 Using voltmeters
- P4.2.3.4 Electromotive force (Supplement)
- P4.2.3.5 Unit of e.m.f. (Supplement)
- P4.2.3.6 Potential difference (Supplement)
- P4.2.3.7 Unit of p.d. (Supplement)
- P4.2.4 Resistance
- P4.2.4.1 Resistance
- P4.2.4.2 Measuring resistance
- P4.2.4.3 Current–voltage graph of a resistor (Supplement)
- P4.2.4.4 Resistance proportional to length, inverse to area (Supplement)
- P4.2.5 Electrical energy and electrical power
- P4.2.5.1 Energy transfer in circuits
- P4.2.5.2 Electrical power
- P4.2.5.3 Electrical energy
- P4.2.5.4 Kilowatt-hours and cost
- P4.3 Electrical circuits
- P4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and circuit components
- P4.3.1.1 Circuit diagrams and components
- P4.3.1.2 Generators and LEDs in circuits (Supplement)
- P4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits
- P4.3.2.1 Current in series circuits
- P4.3.2.2 Series and parallel circuits
- P4.3.2.3 Resistors in series
- P4.3.2.4 Lamps in parallel
- P4.3.2.5 Current in parallel circuits
- P4.3.2.6 Resistors in parallel
- P4.3.2.7 Current and p.d. rules in circuits (Supplement)
- P4.3.2.8 Combined resistance of parallel resistors (Supplement)
- P4.4 Electrical safety
- P4.4.1 Heating effect of current
- P4.4.2 Mains electricity hazards
- P4.4.3 Trip switches and fuses
- P4.4.4 Earthing and double insulation
- P4.5 Electromagnetic effects
- P4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction
- P4.5.1.1 Electromagnetic induction (Supplement)
- P4.5.1.2 Factors affecting induced e.m.f. (Supplement)
- P4.5.2 The a.c. generator
- P4.5.2.1 The a.c. generator (Supplement)
- P4.5.2.2 Generator output graphs (Supplement)
- P4.5.3 Magnetic effect of current
- P4.5.3.1 Magnetic fields of wires and solenoids (Supplement)
- P4.5.3.2 Effect of current on magnetic fields (Supplement)
- P4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor
- P4.5.4.1 Force on a current-carrying conductor (Supplement)
- P4.5.4.2 Directions of force, field and current (Supplement)
- P4.5.5 The d.c. motor
- P4.5.5.1 Turning effect on a coil (Supplement)
- P4.5.5.2 Electric motors (Supplement)
- P4.5.6 The transformer
- P4.5.6.1 Construction of a transformer (Supplement)
- P4.5.6.2 Primary, secondary, step-up and step-down (Supplement)
- P4.5.6.3 Transformer turns ratio (Supplement)
- P4.5.6.4 Ideal transformer power equation (Supplement)
- P4.5.6.5 Transformers in power transmission (Supplement)
- P4.5.6.6 Power losses in cables (Supplement)
- P5 Nuclear physics
- P5.1 The nucleus
- P5.1.1 Composition of the nucleus
- P5.1.2 Charges of subatomic particles
- P5.1.3 Proton number and nucleon number
- P5.1.4 Nuclide notation
- P5.1.5 Isotopes and radioactivity
- P5.1.6 Proton number and nuclear charge (Supplement)
- P5.1.7 Nuclear fission and fusion (Supplement)
- P5.2 Radioactivity
- P5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity
- P5.2.1.1 Ionising and background radiation
- P5.2.1.2 Sources of background radiation
- P5.2.1.3 Detecting ionising radiation
- P5.2.1.4 Count rate
- P5.2.2 The three types of nuclear emission
- P5.2.2.1 Alpha, beta and gamma emissions
- P5.2.3 Radioactive decay
- P5.2.3.1 Radioactive decay
- P5.2.3.2 Decay changes the element
- P5.2.3.3 Change in the nucleus in beta decay
- P5.2.3.4 Decay equations (Supplement)
- P5.2.4 Half-life
- P5.2.4.1 Half-life
- P5.2.5 Applications and safety precautions
- P5.2.5.1 Applications of radioactivity
- P5.2.5.2 Effects of ionising radiation on living things
- P5.2.5.3 Safe handling of radioactive materials
- P6 Space physics
- P6.1 The Solar System
- P6.1.1 The Solar System
- P6.2 Stars and the Universe
- P6.2.1 The Sun as a star
- P6.2.1.1 The Sun and light-years
- P6.2.1.2 Light travel time in the Solar System
- P6.2.1.3 The Sun's mass and planetary orbits
- P6.2.1.4 Gravity keeping objects in orbit
- P6.2.1.5 The Sun as a star
- P6.2.1.6 Orbital speed (Supplement)
- P6.2.1.7 Sun's gravity and orbital speed with distance (Supplement)
- P6.2.1.8 Nuclear fusion in stars (Supplement)
- P6.2.2 Life cycle of stars
- P6.2.2.1 Star formation
- P6.2.2.2 Life cycle of stars by mass
- P6.2.2.3 New stars from supernova nebulae (Supplement)
- P6.2.3 Galaxies and the Universe
- P6.2.3.1 Galaxies and the Milky Way
- P6.2.3.2 The Milky Way and the Universe
- P6.2.3.3 The Big Bang Theory (Supplement)