Specification points
Cambridge Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistry 9701
481 points in 37 topics, with Cambridge's codes and titles.
Grade boundaries·Cambridge command words
Codes and titles are read by a script from Cambridge's published specification and have not been checked by a person. What each point covers is in the specification itself: Cambridge’s specification.
1 Atomic structure
- 1.1 Particles in the atom and atomic radius
- 1.1.1 Nuclear model of the atom
- 1.1.2 Protons, neutrons and electrons
- 1.1.3 Atomic and mass numbers
- 1.1.4 Distribution of mass and charge in atoms
- 1.1.5 Particle beams in an electric field
- 1.1.6 Subatomic particles in atoms and ions
- 1.1.7 Atomic and ionic radius trends
- 1.2 Isotopes
- 1.2.1 Isotopes
- 1.2.2 Isotope notation
- 1.2.3 Chemical properties of isotopes
- 1.2.4 Physical properties of isotopes
- 1.3 Electrons, energy levels and atomic orbitals
- 1.3.1 Shells, sub-shells and orbitals
- 1.3.2 Orbitals in s, p and d sub-shells
- 1.3.3 Energy order of sub-shells
- 1.3.4 Electronic configurations
- 1.3.5 Energy and electron repulsion in configurations
- 1.3.6 Determining electronic configurations
- 1.3.7 Electrons in boxes notation
- 1.3.8 Shapes of s and p orbitals
- 1.3.9 Free radicals
- 1.4 Ionisation energy
- 1.4.1 First ionisation energy
- 1.4.2 Equations for ionisation energies
- 1.4.3 Trends in ionisation energies
- 1.4.4 Successive ionisation energies
- 1.4.5 Origin of ionisation energy
- 1.4.6 Factors affecting ionisation energy
- 1.4.7 Configurations from ionisation energy data
- 1.4.8 Periodic Table position from ionisation energies
2 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry
- 2.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules
- 2.1.1 Unified atomic mass unit
- 2.1.2 Relative masses
- 2.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant
- 2.2.1 The mole and Avogadro constant
- 2.3 Formulas
- 2.3.1 Formulae of ionic compounds
- 2.3.2 Balanced and ionic equations
- 2.3.3 Empirical and molecular formula
- 2.3.4 Anhydrous, hydrated and water of crystallisation
- 2.3.5 Calculating empirical and molecular formulae
- 2.4 Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)
- 2.4.1 Mole calculations
3 Chemical bonding
- 3.1 Electronegativity and bonding
- 3.1.1 Electronegativity
- 3.1.2 Factors affecting electronegativity
- 3.1.3 Trends in electronegativity
- 3.1.4 Predicting bond type from electronegativity
- 3.2 Ionic bonding
- 3.2.1 Ionic bonding
- 3.2.2 Examples of ionic bonding
- 3.3 Metallic bonding
- 3.3.1 Metallic bonding
- 3.4 Covalent bonding and coordinate (dative covalent) bonding
- 3.4.1 Covalent and coordinate bonding
- 3.4.2 Sigma and pi bonds and hybridisation
- 3.4.3 Bond energy and bond length
- 3.5 Shapes of molecules
- 3.5.1 Shapes of molecules by VSEPR theory
- 3.5.2 Predicting molecular shapes
- 3.6 Intermolecular forces, electronegativity and bond properties
- 3.6.1 Hydrogen bonding
- 3.6.2 Bond polarity and dipole moments
- 3.6.3 Van der Waals' forces
- 3.6.4 Bonding versus intermolecular forces
- 3.7 Dot-and-cross diagrams
- 3.7.1 Dot-and-cross diagrams
4 States of matter
5 Chemical energetics
- 5.1 Enthalpy change, ΔH
- 5.1.1 Exothermic and endothermic enthalpy changes
- 5.1.2 Reaction pathway diagrams
- 5.1.3 Standard enthalpy change terms
- 5.1.4 Bond breaking and making
- 5.1.5 Enthalpy change from bond energies
- 5.1.6 Exact and average bond energies
- 5.1.7 Enthalpy changes from experiments
- 5.2 Hess’s law
- 5.2.1 Hess's law
- 5.2.2 Calculations with energy cycles
6 Electrochemistry
7 Equilibria
- 7.1 Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions, dynamic equilibrium
- 7.1.1 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
- 7.1.2 Le Chatelier's principle
- 7.1.3 Applying Le Chatelier's principle
- 7.1.4 Equilibrium constant Kc
- 7.1.5 Mole fraction and partial pressure
- 7.1.6 Equilibrium constant Kp
- 7.1.7 Calculations with Kc and Kp
- 7.1.8 Equilibrium quantities
- 7.1.9 Factors affecting equilibrium constants
- 7.1.10 Haber and Contact process conditions
- 7.2 Brønsted–Lowry theory of acids and bases
- 7.2.1 Common acids
- 7.2.2 Common alkalis
- 7.2.3 Brønsted–Lowry theory
- 7.2.4 Strong and weak acids and bases
- 7.2.5 pH of neutral, acid and alkaline solutions
- 7.2.6 Strong versus weak acid behaviour
- 7.2.7 Neutralisation reactions
- 7.2.8 Salts from neutralisation
- 7.2.9 pH titration curves
- 7.2.10 Choosing titration indicators
8 Reaction kinetics
- 8.1 Rate of reaction
- 8.1.1 Rate of reaction and collisions
- 8.1.2 Concentration and pressure effects on rate
- 8.1.3 Calculating rate from data
- 8.2 Effect of temperature on reaction rates and the concept of activation energy
- 8.2.1 Activation energy
- 8.2.2 Boltzmann distribution
- 8.2.3 Temperature effect on rate
- 8.3 Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
- 8.3.1 Catalysts and catalysis
9 The Periodic Table: chemical periodicity
- 9.1 Periodicity of physical properties of the elements in Period 3
- 9.1.1 Periodic trends in physical properties
- 9.1.2 Melting point and conductivity across a period
- 9.2 Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in Period 3
- 9.2.1 Reactions of Period 3 elements
- 9.2.2 Oxidation numbers of Period 3 oxides and chlorides
- 9.2.3 Reactions of Period 3 oxides with water
- 9.2.4 Acid-base behaviour of Period 3 oxides and hydroxides
- 9.2.5 Reactions of Period 3 chlorides with water
- 9.2.6 Explaining Period 3 trends
- 9.2.7 Bonding in chlorides and oxides from properties
- 9.3 Chemical periodicity of other elements
- 9.3.1 Predicting properties from periodicity
- 9.3.2 Identifying unknown elements
10 Group 2
11 Group 17
- 11.1 Physical properties of the Group 17 elements
- 11.1.1 Colours and volatility of halogens
- 11.1.2 Bond strength of halogens
- 11.1.3 Volatility of halogens and induced dipoles
- 11.2 The chemical properties of the halogen elements and the hydrogen halides
- 11.2.1 Halogens as oxidising agents
- 11.2.2 Reactions of halogens with hydrogen
- 11.2.3 Thermal stability of hydrogen halides
- 11.3 Some reactions of the halide ions
- 11.3.1 Halide ions as reducing agents
- 11.3.2 Reactions of halide ions
- 11.4 The reactions of chlorine
- 11.4.1 Chlorine with sodium hydroxide
- 11.4.2 Chlorine in water purification
12 Nitrogen and sulfur
13 An introduction to AS Level organic chemistry
- 13.1 Formulas, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
- 13.1.1 Hydrocarbons
- 13.1.2 Alkanes
- 13.1.3 Functional groups
- 13.1.4 General, structural, displayed and skeletal formulae
- 13.1.5 Systematic nomenclature
- 13.1.6 Molecular and empirical formulae from structures
- 13.2 Characteristic organic reactions
- 13.2.1 Terminology of organic reactions
- 13.2.2 Terminology of organic mechanisms
- 13.3 Shapes of organic molecules; σ and π bonds
- 13.3.1 Straight-chain, branched and cyclic molecules
- 13.3.2 Shapes and hybridisation
- 13.3.3 Sigma and pi bonds in hybridised molecules
- 13.3.4 Planar molecules
- 13.4 Isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism
- 13.4.1 Structural isomerism
- 13.4.2 Stereoisomerism
- 13.4.3 Geometrical isomerism in alkenes
- 13.4.4 Chiral centres and optical isomers
- 13.4.5 Identifying chiral centres and cis/trans isomers
- 13.4.6 Deducing possible isomers
14 Hydrocarbons
- 14.1 Alkanes
- 14.1.1 Production of alkanes
- 14.1.2 Combustion and free-radical substitution of alkanes
- 14.1.3 Mechanism of free-radical substitution
- 14.1.4 Cracking for useful alkanes and alkenes
- 14.1.5 Unreactivity of alkanes
- 14.1.6 Pollutants from combustion engines
- 14.2 Alkenes
- 14.2.1 Production of alkenes
- 14.2.2 Reactions of alkenes
- 14.2.3 Bromine test for C=C
- 14.2.4 Mechanism of electrophilic addition
- 14.2.5 Carbocation stability and Markovnikov addition
15 Halogen compounds
16 Hydroxy compounds
17 Carbonyl compounds
18 Carboxylic acids and derivatives
19 Nitrogen compounds
20 Polymerisation
21 Organic synthesis
22 Analytical techniques
23 Chemical energetics (A Level)
- 23.1 Lattice energy and Born-Haber cycles
- 23.1.1 Atomisation and lattice energy
- 23.1.2 Electron affinity
- 23.1.3 Born–Haber cycles
- 23.1.4 Born–Haber calculations
- 23.1.5 Factors affecting lattice energy
- 23.2 Enthalpies of solution and hydration
- 23.2.1 Enthalpy of hydration and solution
- 23.2.2 Energy cycles for solution
- 23.2.3 Calculations with solution energy cycles
- 23.2.4 Factors affecting hydration enthalpy
- 23.3 Entropy change, ΔS
- 23.3.1 Entropy
- 23.3.2 Predicting entropy changes
- 23.3.3 Calculating entropy change
- 23.4 Gibbs free energy change, ΔG
- 23.4.1 Gibbs equation
- 23.4.2 Calculations using the Gibbs equation
- 23.4.3 Feasibility from Gibbs free energy
- 23.4.4 Temperature and feasibility
24 Electrochemistry (A Level)
- 24.1 Electrolysis
- 24.1.1 Predicting electrolysis products
- 24.1.2 Faraday and Avogadro constants
- 24.1.3 Quantitative electrolysis
- 24.1.4 Avogadro constant by electrolysis
- 24.2 Standard electrode potentials E⦵, standard cell potentials E⦵cell and the Nernst equation
- 24.2.1 Standard electrode and cell potentials
- 24.2.2 Standard hydrogen electrode
- 24.2.3 Measuring standard electrode potentials
- 24.2.4 Calculating standard cell potential
- 24.2.5 Using standard cell potentials
- 24.2.6 Relative reactivity from electrode potentials
- 24.2.7 Redox equations from half-equations
- 24.2.8 Concentration and electrode potential
- 24.2.9 Nernst equation
- 24.2.10 Free energy and cell potential
25 Equilibria (A Level)
- 25.1 Acids and bases
- 25.1.1 Conjugate acids and bases
- 25.1.2 Conjugate acid–base pairs
- 25.1.3 pH, Ka, pKa and Kw
- 25.1.4 Calculating pH
- 25.1.5 Buffer solutions
- 25.1.6 pH of buffer solutions
- 25.1.7 Solubility product
- 25.1.8 Expressions for Ksp
- 25.1.9 Calculations with Ksp
- 25.1.10 Common ion effect
- 25.2 Partition coefficients
- 25.2.1 Partition coefficient
- 25.2.2 Calculating partition coefficients
- 25.2.3 Factors affecting partition coefficients
26 Reaction kinetics (A Level)
- 26.1 Simple rate equations, orders of reaction and rate constants
- 26.1.1 Rate equation terminology
- 26.1.2 Rate equations and orders
- 26.1.3 Half-life of first-order reactions
- 26.1.4 Calculating rate constants
- 26.1.5 Mechanisms and rate equations
- 26.1.6 Temperature and rate constant
- 26.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
- 26.2.1 Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
- 26.2.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
- 26.2.3 Homogeneous catalysis
27 Group 2 (A Level)
28 Chemistry of transition elements
- 28.1 Properties of first-row transition elements
- 28.1.1 Transition elements
- 28.1.2 Shapes of 3d orbitals
- 28.1.3 Properties of transition elements
- 28.1.4 Variable oxidation states
- 28.1.5 Transition elements as catalysts
- 28.1.6 Transition elements and complex ions
- 28.2 Chemical properties of first-row transition elements
- 28.2.1 Formation of complexes
- 28.2.2 Ligands
- 28.2.3 Monodentate, bidentate and polydentate ligands
- 28.2.4 Complexes
- 28.2.5 Geometry of complexes
- 28.2.6 Coordination number and complex formulae
- 28.2.7 Ligand exchange
- 28.2.8 Feasibility of transition metal redox reactions
- 28.2.9 Redox titration calculations
- 28.2.10 Other redox calculations
- 28.3 Colour of complexes
- 28.3.1 Degenerate and non-degenerate d orbitals
- 28.3.2 Splitting of d orbitals
- 28.3.3 Why transition compounds are coloured
- 28.3.4 Ligands and colour
- 28.3.5 Ligand exchange and colour
- 28.4 Stereoisomerism in transition element complexes
- 28.4.1 Stereoisomerism in complexes
- 28.4.2 Polarity of complexes
- 28.5 Stability constants, Kstab
- 28.5.1 Stability constant
- 28.5.2 Expressions for stability constants
- 28.5.3 Calculations with stability constants
- 28.5.4 Ligand exchange and stability constants
29 An introduction to A Level organic chemistry
- 29.1 Formulas, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
- 29.1.1 Functional groups
- 29.1.2 Formulae of organic compound classes
- 29.1.3 Nomenclature of aliphatic molecules
- 29.1.4 Nomenclature of aromatic molecules
- 29.2 Characteristic organic reactions
- 29.2.1 Electrophilic substitution and addition–elimination
- 29.3 Shapes of aromatic organic molecules; σ and π bonds
- 29.3.1 Structure of benzene
- 29.4 Isomerism: optical
- 29.4.1 Properties of enantiomers
- 29.4.2 Optical activity and racemic mixtures
- 29.4.3 Optical isomers and polarised light
- 29.4.4 Chirality in drug synthesis
30 Hydrocarbons (A Level)
31 Halogen compounds (A Level)
32 Hydroxy compounds (A Level)
- 32.1 Alcohols
- 32.1.1 Acyl chlorides forming esters
- 32.2 Phenol
- 32.2.1 Production of phenol
- 32.2.2 Reactions of phenol
- 32.2.3 Acidity of phenol
- 32.2.4 Acidities of water, phenol and ethanol
- 32.2.5 Nitration and bromination of phenol
- 32.2.6 Directing effect of the hydroxyl group
- 32.2.7 Reactions of other phenolic compounds
33 Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A Level)
- 33.1 Carboxylic acids
- 33.1.1 Production of benzoic acid
- 33.1.2 Forming acyl chlorides
- 33.1.3 Further oxidation of carboxylic acids
- 33.1.4 Acidities of acids, phenols and alcohols
- 33.1.5 Acidity of chlorine-substituted acids
- 33.2 Esters
- 33.2.1 Esters from acyl chlorides
- 33.3 Acyl chlorides
- 33.3.1 Production of acyl chlorides
- 33.3.2 Reactions of acyl chlorides
- 33.3.3 Addition–elimination mechanism
- 33.3.4 Ease of hydrolysis of chlorides
34 Nitrogen compounds (A Level)
- 34.1 Primary and secondary amines
- 34.1.1 Production of amines
- 34.1.2 Forming amides
- 34.1.3 Basicity of amines
- 34.2 Phenylamine and azo compounds
- 34.2.1 Preparation of phenylamine
- 34.2.2 Reactions of phenylamine
- 34.2.3 Relative basicities of amines
- 34.2.4 Azo compounds
- 34.3 Amides
- 34.3.1 Production of amides
- 34.3.2 Reactions of amides
- 34.3.3 Weak basicity of amides
- 34.4 Amino acids
- 34.4.1 Amino acids and zwitterions
- 34.4.2 Peptide bonds
- 34.4.3 Electrophoresis of amino acids
35 Polymerisation (A Level)
- 35.1 Condensation polymerisation
- 35.1.1 Formation of polyesters
- 35.1.2 Formation of polyamides
- 35.1.3 Repeat units of condensation polymers
- 35.1.4 Monomers from condensation polymers
- 35.2 Predicting the type of polymerisation
- 35.2.1 Predicting polymerisation type
- 35.2.2 Deducing polymerisation type from structure
- 35.3 Degradable polymers
- 35.3.1 Inertness of poly(alkenes)
- 35.3.2 Photodegradable polymers
- 35.3.3 Biodegradable polyesters and polyamides
36 Organic synthesis (A Level)
37 Analytical techniques (A Level)
- 37.1 Thin-layer chromatography
- 37.1.1 Thin-layer chromatography terms
- 37.1.2 Interpreting Rf values
- 37.1.3 Explaining Rf values
- 37.2 Gas / liquid chromatography
- 37.2.1 Gas–liquid chromatography terms
- 37.2.2 Interpreting gas–liquid chromatograms
- 37.2.3 Retention times
- 37.3 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy
- 37.3.1 Carbon-13 NMR spectra
- 37.3.2 Peaks in carbon-13 NMR
- 37.4 Proton (1H) NMR spectroscopy
- 37.4.1 Proton NMR spectra
- 37.4.2 Chemical shifts and splitting patterns
- 37.4.3 TMS as NMR standard
- 37.4.4 Deuterated solvents
- 37.4.5 Proton exchange with D2O